Being the Child of a Parent with a Mental Illness

Being the child of a parent who has a mental illness involves considerable risk to the child’s secure attachment and long-term mental health. Parental mental health concerns place children at a significantly greater risk of lower social, psychological and physical health than children in families not affected by mental illness. (Mayberry et al, 2005). Living with a parent suffering from a mental illness can have huge negative effects for the developing child. It has been proven numerous times that there is a genuine link between parental mental illness and its adverse effects for children, e.g. Rutter, 1966, Cleaver et all, 1999. These effects can often manifest themselves as anxiety, self-esteem issues, poor relationships, educational underachievement, and emotional and behavioural problems. It should be noted that an extremely low percentage of mentally unwell parents intentionally abuse their children physically or emotionally. Another interesting facet of the parent-child relationship within the context of mental health, is that oftentimes, the child of a mentally unwell parent can often develop the same mental illness as the parent. Mattejat and Remschmidt wrote that the probability of a particular mental illness is higher when a biological parent has the same condition. The lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia is about 1% in the general population, but more than ten times higher if a parent suffers from the disease. (2008). Within this written piece, it is myShow MoreRelatedMental Illness Affects Numerous Individuals In America,1424 Words   |  6 PagesMental illness affects numerous individuals in America, with nearly 43.8 million adults in America living with a serious illness (Mental health facts in America, n.d). Many of these adults suffering with a mental illness also play the role of a mother, father, or caregiver. According to Costea (2011), â€Å"†¦31% of American women and about 17% of men have a 12-month prevalence of at least one psychiatric disorder, and of those 65% are mothers and 52% are fathers†. However, research focuses on the individualsRead MoreChildren With Mentally Ill Parents930 Words   |  4 PagesRaised by the Mentally Ill To many children, parents are loving caregivers that work around the clock to provide them with the physical and emotional necessities that are essential to a healthy and happy childhood. However, in some unfortunate cases, one or both parents are unable to care for their children. For whatever reason it may be, it is difficult on one or both parents and their children when they are separated, but what if the parents were unfit to take care of their children and theyRead MoreQuestioning The Disorderly1484 Words   |  6 Pagesdiscrimination, such as hate crimes, bullying and unnecessary judgement, than the average straight or cis-gender person, making it more difficult to cope with mental illness and achieve the American Dream. The American Dream is slightly tainted for those in the LGBTQ+ community, and suffering from a mental illness. Being queer and diagnosed with a mental disorder is a fatal mix, many of which don’t survive the curse. These minorities are alienated from society and diagnosed with more than just a disorderRead MoreCorrelation Between Parietal And Adolescent Drug Abuse1578 Words   |  7 Pagesof America. The objective of the experiment is to show the correlation between substance use behaviors of parents and their children’s substance use initiation and other risky behaviors. The experiment is focused on the role of mothers and fathers as a separate study. The surveys that take place through a series of interviews include two people from a selected household, one parent and one child. This topic was of interest to me because I grew up with an alcoholic father. Alcoholism has affected myRead MoreMaking Meaning When A Child Has Mental Illness1222 Words   |  5 Pagesentitled, â€Å"Making Meaning When a Child Has Mental Illness: Four Mothers Share Their Experiences† by Ahmann (2013) is essentially where Ahmann interviews four mothers whose children have been given a mental health diagnosis and she documents in anecdo tal form how each of them were able to cope, and even escape the feelings of grief, isolation, loneliness, helplessness, and depression by reaching out to others and â€Å"making meaning† in their lives by being mentors to other parents who receive a similar diagnosisRead MoreThe Effects Of Depression And Its Effects On Society Essay1497 Words   |  6 Pagesdepressed; however, the earliest signs of depression begin with youngest of the human population. From the day a child is born, the environment, the people, and everything else around them, begins to influence their decisions and impact the way they will live their life. A child is the first naà ¯ve human being to be influenced by external forces. From every experience, to every event, the child participates or does not participate in, influences their thoughts and emotions. Their brain is not quite matureRead MoreSterilization is a complex procedure and has raise debates throughout the world on whether is a1200 Words à ‚  |  5 Pagestheir children and some suggest it violates the basic human rights of the child (Freckelton, 2008). The case study report discussed about the increase of sterilization for children with disability in Australia. The procedures were being done mostly without the authority of the court or tribunal where they play a major role. The involvement of the court or tribunal is necessary as the high court in 1992 announced that parents do not have the right or power to give consent for the sterilization ofRead MoreMental Illness And Mental Health1460 Words   |  6 Pageshaving mental health problems when actually they should be referred to as having a mental illness. Mental health is â€Å"a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community† (Mental health basics). Mental health is something a normal, healthy functioning human being has when everything in their head is in order. A mental illness is theRead MoreThe Art icle Crying Alone With My Child 974 Words   |  4 PagesBipolar disorder is manic depressive illness a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania(macmillan). 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The Return Nightfall Chapter 19 Free Essays

Matt was knocking at the Bryces’ door, with Elena at his side. Elena had disguised herself by stuffing all her hair into a Virginia Cavaliers baseball cap and wearing wraparound sunglasses from one of Stefan’s drawers. She was also wearing an over-large maroon and navy Pendleton shirt donated by Matt, and a pair of Meredith’s outgrown jeans. We will write a custom essay sample on The Return: Nightfall Chapter 19 or any similar topic only for you Order Now She felt sure that no one who had known the old Elena Gilbert would ever recognize her, dressed like this. The door opened very slowly to reveal not Mr. or Mrs. Bryce, nor Jim, but Tamra. She was wearing – well, close to nothing. She had on a thong bikini bottom, but it looked handmade, as if she’d cut a regular bikini bottom with scissors – and it was beginning to come apart. On top she had two round decorations made of cardboard with sequins pasted on and a few strands of colored tinsel. On her head she wore a paper crown, which was clearly where she’d gotten the tinsel. She’d made an attempt to glue strands onto the bikini bottoms as well. The result looked like what it was: a child’s attempt to make an outfit for a Las Vegas showgirl or stripper. Matt immediately turned around and stood facing away, but Tami threw herself at him and plastered herself to his back. â€Å"Matt Honey-butt,† she cooed. â€Å"You came back. I knew you would. But why’d you bring this ugly old whore with you? How can we – â€Å" Elena stepped forward, then, because Matt had whirled with his hand up. She was sure that Matt had never struck a female in his life, especially a child, but he was also over-sensitive about one or two subjects. Like her. Elena managed to get between Matt and the surprisingly strong Tamra. She had to hide a smile when contemplating Tami’s costume. After all, only a few days ago, she hadn’t understood the human nakedness taboo at all. Now she got it, but it didn’t seem nearly as important as it once had. People were born with their own perfectly good skins on. There was no real reason, in her mind, to wear false skins over those, unless it was cold or somehow uncomfortable without them. But society said that to be naked was to be wicked. Tami was trying to be wicked, in her own childish way. â€Å"Get your hands off me, you old whore,† Tamra snarled as Elena held her away from Matt, and then she added several rather lengthy expletives. â€Å"Tami, where are your parents? Where’s your brother?† Elena said. She ignored the obscene words – they were just sounds – but saw that Matt had gone white around the lips. â€Å"You apologize to Elena right now! Apologize for talking that way!† he demanded. â€Å"Elena’s a stinking corpse with worms in her eye sockets,† Tamra sang glibly. â€Å"But my friend says she was a whore when she was alive. A real† – a string of four-letter words that made Matt gasp – â€Å"cheap whore.You know. Nothing’s cheaper than something that comes free.† â€Å"Matt, just don’t pay any attention,† Elena said under her breath, and she repeated, â€Å"Where are your parents and Jim?† The answer was littered with more expletives, but it amounted to the story – truthful or not – that Mr. and Mrs. Bryce had gone away on vacation for a few days, and that Jim was with his girlfriend, Isobel. â€Å"Okay, then, I guess I’ll just have to help you get into some more decent clothes,† Elena said. â€Å"First, I think you need a shower to get these Christmas doodads off – â€Å" â€Å"Just try-hy-hy! Just try-hy-hy!† The answer was somewhere between the whinny of a horse and human speech. â€Å"I glued them on with PermaStick!† Tami added and then began giggling on a high and hysterical note. â€Å"Oh, my God – Tamra, do you realize that if there isn’t some solvent for this, you may need surgery?† Tami’s answer was foul. There was also a sudden foul smell. No, not a smell, Elena thought: a choking, gutcurdling stench. â€Å"Oops!† Tami gave that high, glassy giggle again. â€Å"Pardonmoi . At least it’snatural gas.† Matt cleared his throat. â€Å"Elena – I don’t think we should be here. With her folks gone and all†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"They’re afraid of me,† Tamra giggled. â€Å"Aren’tyou ?† – very suddenly in a voice that had dropped several octaves. Elena looked Tamra in the eye. â€Å"No, I’m not. I just feel sorry for a little girl who was in the wrong place at the wrong time. But Matt’s right, I guess. We have to go.† Tami’s whole manner seemed to change. â€Å"I’m so sorry†¦. I didn’t realize I had guests of that caliber. Don’t go, please, Matt.† Then she added in a confidential whisper to Elena, â€Å"Is he any good?† â€Å"What?† Tami nodded at Matt, who immediately turned his back to her. He looked as if he felt a terrible, repulsive fascination for Tami’s ridiculous appearance. â€Å"Him. Is he any good in the sack?† â€Å"Matt, look at this.† Elena held up a small tube of glue. â€Å"I think she actually did PermaStick that stuff to her skin. We have to call Child Protective Services or whatever, because nobody took her to the hospital right away. Whether her parents knew about this behavior or not, they shouldn’t have just left her.† â€Å"I just hopethey’re all right. Her family,† Matt said grimly as they walked out the door, with Tami coolly following them to the car, and shouting lurid details about â€Å"what a good time† they had had, â€Å"the three of them.† Elena glanced at him uneasily from her place in the passenger seat – with no ID or driver’s license, of course, she knew she shouldn’t drive. â€Å"Maybe we’d better take her to the police first. My God, that poor family!† Matt said nothing for a long time. His chin was set, his mouth grim. â€Å"I feel somehow as if I’m responsible. I mean, I knew there was something wrong with her – I should have told her parents then.† â€Å"Now you’re sounding like Stefan. You’re not responsible for everyone you meet.† Matt gave her a grateful glance, and Elena continued, â€Å"In fact I’m going to ask Bonnie and Meredith to do one other thing, which proves you’re not. I’m going to ask them to check on Isobel Saitou, Jim’s girlfriend.You’ve never had any contact with her, but Tami might have.† â€Å"You mean you think she’s got it, too?† â€Å"That’s what I hope Bonnie and Meredith will find out.† Bonnie stopped dead, almost losing her hold on Mrs. Forbes’s feet. â€Å"I am not going into that bedroom.† â€Å"You have to. I can’t manage her alone,† Meredith said. Then she added cajolingly, â€Å"Look, Bonnie, if you go in with me, I’ll tell you a secret.† Bonnie bit her lip. Then she shut her eyes and let Meredith guide her, step by step, farther into this house of horror. She knew where the master bedroom was – after all, she had played here since childhood. All the way down the hall, then turn left. She was surprised when Meredith came to a sudden stop after only a few steps. â€Å"Bonnie.† â€Å"Well? What?† â€Å"I don’t want to frighten you, but – â€Å" This had the immediate effect of terrifying Bonnie. Her eyes snapped open. â€Å"What?What? † Before Meredith could answer she glanced over her shoulder in fear and saw what. Caroline was behind her. But not standing. She was crawling – no, she was scuttling, the way she had on Stefan’s floor. Like a lizard. Her bronze hair, unkempt, hung down over her face. Her elbows and knees stuck out at impossible angles. Bonnie screamed, but the pressure of the house seemed to choke the scream back down her throat. The only effect it had was to make Caroline look up at her with a quick reptilian movement of her head. â€Å"Oh, my God – Caroline, what happened to your face?† Caroline had a black eye. Or rather, a purplish-red eye that was so swollen that Bonnie knew it would have to turn black in time. On her jaw was another purple swelling bruise. Caroline didn’t answer, unless you counted the sibilant hiss she gave while scuttling forward. â€Å"Meredith, run! She’s right behind me!† Meredith quickened her pace, looking frightened – all the more frightening to Bonnie because almost nothing could shake her friend. But as they lurched forward, with Mrs. Forbes bouncing between them, Caroline scuttled right under her mother and into the door of her parents’ room, the master bedroom. â€Å"Meredith, I won’t go in th – † But they were already stumbling through the door. Bonnie shot quick darting glances into every corner. Caroline was nowhere to be seen. â€Å"Maybe she’s in the closet,† Meredith said. â€Å"Now, let me go first and put her head on the far side of the bed. We can adjust her later.† She backed around the bed, almost dragging Bonnie with her, and dumped Mrs. Forbes’s upper torso so that her head rested on pillows. â€Å"Now just pull her and put her legs down on the other side.† â€Å"I can’t do it. I can’t! Caroline’sunder the bed, you know.† â€Å"She can’t be under the bed. There’s only about a five-inch clearance,† Meredith said firmly. â€Å"She’s there! Iknow it. And† – rather fiercely – â€Å"you promised you’d tell me a secret.† â€Å"All right!† Meredith gave a complicit glance through her disheveled dark hair. â€Å"I telegraphed Alaric yesterday. He’s so far out in the boonies that telegraph is the only way to reach him, and it may be days before my message gets to him. I had an idea that we were going to need his advice. I feel bad, asking him to do projects that aren’t for his doctorate, but – â€Å" â€Å"Who cares about his doctorate? Godbless you!† cried Bonnie thankfully. â€Å"You did just right!† â€Å"Then come on and swing Mrs. Forbes’ feet around the bottom of the bed. You can do it if you lean in.† The bed was a California king-size. Mrs. Forbes was lying at an angle across it, like a doll thrown on the floor. But Bonnie halted near the foot of the bed. â€Å"Caroline’s going to grab me.† â€Å"No, she won’t. Come on, Bonnie. Just get Mrs. Forbes’ legs and give one big heave†¦.† â€Å"If I get that close to the bed, she’llgrab me!† â€Å"Why should she?† â€Å"Because she knows what scares me! And now that I’ve said it, shedefinitely will.† â€Å"If she grabs you, I’ll come and kick her in the face.† â€Å"Your leg’s not that long. It would bang on the metal bed-frame thingummy – â€Å" â€Å"Oh, for God’s sake, Bonnie! Just help meheeeeeeere !† The last word was a full-fledged scream. â€Å"Meredith – † began Bonnie, and then she screamed, too. â€Å"What is it?† â€Å"She’s grabbing me!† â€Å"She can’t be!She’s grabbingme ! Nobody has arms that long!† â€Å"Or that strong! Bonnie!I can’t make her let go!† â€Å"Neither can I!† And then any words were drowned in screaming. After dropping Tami off with the police, driving Elena around the woods known as the Fell’s State Park was†¦well, a walk in the park. Every so often they would stop. Elena would go a few steps into the trees and stand, Calling – however you did that. Then she came back to the Jaguar, looking discouraged. â€Å"I’m not sure that Bonnie wouldn’t be better at this,† she said to Matt. â€Å"If we can brace ourselves to go out at night.† Matt shuddered involuntarily. â€Å"Two nights were enough.† â€Å"Do you know, you never told me your story from that first night. Or at least, not when I could understand words, spoken words.† â€Å"Well, I was driving around like this, except almost on the other side of the Old Wood – near the Lightning-Split Oak area†¦?† â€Å"Right.† â€Å"When right in the middle of the road something appears.† â€Å"A fox?† â€Å"Well, it was red in the headlights, but it wasn’t like any fox I’ve ever seen. And I’ve been driving this road since I could drive.† â€Å"A wolf?† â€Å"Like a werewolf, you mean? But, no – I’ve seen wolves by moonlight and they’re bigger. This was right in between.† â€Å"In other words,† Elena said, narrowing her lapis lazuli eyes, â€Å"a custom-made creature.† â€Å"Maybe. It sure was different from the malach that chewed my arm up.† Elena nodded. Malach could take all sorts of different forms, from what she understood. But they were siblings in one way: they all used Power and they all needed a diet of Power to live. And they could be manipulated by a stronger Power than they had. And they were venomous enemies of humans. â€Å"So all we really know is that we don’t know anything.† â€Å"Right. That was the place back there, where we saw it. It just suddenly appeared in the middle of the – hey!† â€Å"Go right! Righthere !† â€Å"Just like that! It was just like that!† The Jaguar screeched almost to a stop, turning right, not into a ditch but into a small lane that no one would notice unless they were looking directly at it. When the car stopped, they both stared up the lane, breathing hard. Neither had to ask whether the other had seen a reddish creature zip across the road, bigger than a fox but smaller than a wolf. They looked up at the narrow lane. â€Å"The million-dollar question: should we go in?† Matt asked. â€Å"NoKEEP OUT signs – and hardly any houses on this side of the wood. Across the street and down a way there’s the Dunstans’.† â€Å"So we go in?† â€Å"We go in. Just go slowly. It’s later than I thought.† Meredith, of course, was the one to calm down first. â€Å"Allright , Bonnie,† she said. â€Å"Stop it! Now! It’s not going to do any good here!† Bonnie didn’t think shecould stop it. But Meredith had that special look in her dark eyes; the one that meant she was serious. The look she’d had before laying Caroline out on Stefan’s floor. Bonnie made a supreme effort and found that somehow she was able to hold in the next shriek. She looked dumbly at Meredith, feeling her own body shake. â€Å"Good. Good, Bonnie. Now.† Meredith swallowed. â€Å"Pulling doesn’t do any good, either. So I’m going to try†¦peeling her fingers off. If anything happens to me; if I get – pulled under the bed or anything, then yourun , Bonnie. And if you can’t run, then you call Elena and Matt. You call until you get an answer.† Bonnie managed something almost heroic then. She refused to picture Meredith being pulled under the bed. She wouldn’t let herself imagine how that would look as Meredith, struggling, disappeared, or how she would feel, all alone, after that. They’d both left their purses with their mobile phones in the entryway to carry Mrs. Forbes, so Meredith wasn’t saying to call them in any normal sense. She meant Call them. A sudden radical burst of indignation swept through Bonnie. Why did girls carry purses anyway? Even the efficient, reliable Meredith often did it. Of course Meredith’s purses were usually designer handbags that enhanced her outfits and were full of useful things like small notebooks and keychain flashlights, but still†¦a boy would have his mobile phone in his pocket. From now on, I’m wearing a waist pouch, Bonnie thought, feeling as if she were raising a rebel flag for girls everywhere, and for just a moment also feeling her panic recede. Then she saw Meredith stooping, a hunched figure in the dim light, and at the same moment she felt the grip on her own ankle tighten. Despite herself she glanced down, and saw the outline of Caroline’s tanned fingers and long bronze nails against the creamy white of the rug. Panic burst out in her again, full force. She made a choked sound that was a strangled scream, and to her own astonishment she spontaneously hit trance and began to Call. It wasn’t the fact that she was Calling that surprised her. It was what she was saying. Damon! Damon! We’re trapped at Caroline’s house and she’s gone crazy! Help! It flowed out of her like an underwater well that had been suddenly tapped, releasing a geyser. Damon, she’s got me by the ankle – and she won’t let go! If she pulls Meredith under, I don’t know what I’ll do! Help me! Vaguely, because the trance was good and deep, she heard Meredith say, â€Å"Ah-hah! It feels like fingers, but actually it’s a vine. It must be one of those tentacles that Matt told us about. I’m – trying – to break one of the loops – off†¦Ã¢â‚¬  All at once there was a rustling from under the bed. And not just from one place, either, but a massive whipping and shaking that actually bounced the mattress up and down, even with poor little Mrs. Forbes on it. There must be dozens of those insects under there. Damon, it’s thosethings! Lots of them. Oh, God, I think I’m going to faint. And if I faint – and if Caroline pulls me under†¦Oh, please come and help! â€Å"Damn!† Meredith was saying. â€Å"I don’t know how Matt managed to do this. It’s too tight, and – and I think there’s more than one tentacle here.† It’s all over,Bonnie sent in quiet conclusion, feeling herself start to go at the knees.We’re going to die. â€Å"Undoubtedly – that’s the problem with humans. But not justyet ,† a voice said from behind her, and a strong arm went around her, taking up her weight easily. â€Å"Caroline, the fun’s over. I mean it. Letgo!† â€Å"Damon?† Bonnie gasped. â€Å"Damon? You came!† â€Å"All that wailing gets on my nerves. It doesn’t mean – â€Å" But Bonnie wasn’t listening. She wasn’t even thinking. She was still half in trance and not responsible (she decided later) for her own actions. She wasn’therself . It was someone else who went into rapture when the grip on her ankle loosened, and someone else who whirled around in Damon’s grip and threw her arms around his neck and kissed him on the mouth. It was someone else, too, who felt Damon startle, with his arms still around her, and who noticed that he made no attempt to pull away from the kiss. That person also noticed, when at last she leaned back, that Damon’s skin, pale in the dim light, looked almost as if he had flushed. And that was when Meredith straightened up slowly, painfully, from the other side of the bed, which was still jouncing up and down. She hadn’t seen anything of the kiss, and looked at Damon as if she couldn’t believe he was really here. She was at a great disadvantage, and Bonnie knew she knew it. This was one of those situations where anyone else would have been too flustered to speak, or even stammer. But Meredith just took a deep breath and then said quietly, â€Å"Damon. Thank you. Do you think – would it be too much trouble to make the malach let go of me, as well?† Now Damon looked like his old self. He gave a brilliant smile aimed at something no one else could see and said sharply, â€Å"And as for the rest of you down there – heel!† He snapped his fingers. The bed stopped moving instantly. Meredith stepped away, and closed her eyes for a moment in relief. â€Å"Thank you again,† she said, with the dignity of a princess, but fervently. â€Å"And now, do you think you could do anything about Caro – â€Å" â€Å"Right now,† Damon cut in even more roughly than usual, â€Å"I have to run.† He glanced at the Rolex on his wrist. â€Å"It’s past 4:44, and I had an appointment I’m already late for. Come around here and prop up this dizzy bundle. She’s not quite ready to stand by herself.† Meredith hastened to switch places with him. At that point, Bonnie discovered that her legs were no longer wobbling. â€Å"Wait a minute, though,† Meredith said rapidly. â€Å"Elenaneeds to talk to you – desperately – â€Å" But Damon was gone, as if he’d mastered the art of simply disappearing, not even waiting for Bonnie’s thanks. Meredith looked astonished, as if she’d been certain that the mention of Elena’s name would stop him, but Bonnie had something else on her mind. â€Å"Meredith,† Bonnie whispered, putting two fingers to her lips in amazement. â€Å"I kissed him!† â€Å"What?When? â€Å" â€Å"Before you stood up. I – don’t even know how it happened but I did it!† She expected some kind of explosion from Meredith. Instead, Meredith looked at her thoughtfully and murmured, â€Å"Well, maybe it wasn’t such a bad thing to do, after all. What I don’t understand is why he turned up in the first place.† â€Å"Uh. That was me, too. I Called him. I don’t know how that happened either – â€Å" â€Å"Well, there’s no point in trying to figure it out in here.† Meredith turned toward the bed. â€Å"Caroline, are you coming out of there? Are you going to stand up and have a normal conversation?† There was a menacing and reptilian hiss from under the bed, along with the whipping of tentacles and another noise that Bonnie had never heard before but which terrified her instinctively, like the snapping of giant pincers. â€Å"That’s answer enough for me,† she said, and grabbed Meredith to drag her out of the room. Meredith didn’t need dragging. But for the first time today they heard Caroline’s taunting voice, lifted childishly high. â€Å"Bonnie and Damon sitting in a tree K-I-S-S-I-N-G. First comes love, then comes marriage; Then there comes a vampire in a baby carriage.† Meredith paused in the hallway. â€Å"Caroline, you know that that isn’t going to help matters. Come out – â€Å" The bed went into a frenzy, bucking and heaving. Bonnie turned and ran, and she knew Meredith was right behind her. They still didn’t manage to outpace the singsong words: â€Å"You’re notmy friends; you’re thewhore’s friends. Just you wait! Just youwait !† Bonnie and Meredith grabbed their purses and left the house. â€Å"What time is it?† Bonnie asked, when they were safely in Meredith’s car. â€Å"Almost five.† â€Å"It seemed like so much longer!† â€Å"I know, but we’ve got hours of daylight left. And, come to that, I have a text message from Elena.† â€Å"About Tami?† â€Å"I’ll tell you about it. But first – † It was one of the few times Bonnie had seen Meredith look awkward. Finally she blurted, â€Å"How was it?† â€Å"How was what?† â€Å"Kissing Damon, you nitwit!† How to cite The Return: Nightfall Chapter 19, Essay examples

Historical perspective of modes of construction of buildings free essay sample

The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilisations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. MATERIALS The chief building material was the mud brick, formed in wooden moulds. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, bricks were also being fired and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT GREECE The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However very many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc. ), so our knowledge of how these were put together is purely conjectural. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. Before 650 B. C. E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or petrified carpentry. Fire clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. Fired bricks were not commonly employed. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion. Building structures used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could achieved. However, the Greeks did construct Arch Bridges. Greek mathematics was technically advanced and we know for certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was simply left until the drums of the columns were cut in place. The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction. Design of Assyrian buildings, fortifications and temples Tell Asmar Standing man votive sculpture 2750-2600 B. C The plans of all the Assyrian buildings are rectangular, and we know that long ago, as now, the Eastern architects used this outline almost invariably, and upon it reared some of the most lovely and varied forms ever devised. They gather over the angles by graceful curves, and on the basis of an ordinary square hall carry up a minaret or a dome, an octagon or a circle. That this was sometimes done in Assyria is shown by the sculptures. Slabs from Kouyunjik show domes of varied form, and tower-like structures, each rising from a square base. The resemblance between the ancient form of the dome and those still used in the Assyrian villages is very striking. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas-reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well-nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty-eight towers have been traced, and at Kouyunjik there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun-dried bricks. At Khorsabad there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1. 2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval machicolations, and are finished at top with battlements, remains of which have been found at Nimroud and Kouyunjik, and at Kale Shortage, the supposed capital of Assyria before Nineveh. But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of Nuba at Borsippa (now Birs Nimrod), near Babylon, which has been identified as the temple of the Seven Spheres. This was reconstructed by Nebuchadnezzar, as appears by a well-known inscription. Another example is at Muggier, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: kisubbu) which was used alternatively for agriculture and waste disposal. External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal. This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia. In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B. C. , found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient Assyrian fountain discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream. The water was led from small conduits. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT EGYPT As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings. MATERIALS Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork. The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger blocks may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete. TECHNOLOGY Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of slaves. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps. OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force. The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion. Pyramids at Giza. In the background from L to R: The Pyramid of Menkaure, The Pyramid of Khafre and The Great Pyramid of Khufu. Egyptian Architecture The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin was that of Egypt (c. 3100-2040 BCE). In addition to its own written language, religion and dynastic ruling class, it developed a unique style of Egyptian architecture, largely consisting of massive burial chambers in the form of Pyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate Valley of the Kings, Luxor). Design was monumental but not architecturally complex and employed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian expertise in stone had a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examples of Egyptian pyramid architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) designed by Imhotep one of the greatest architects of the ancient world and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2550 BCE), also called the Pyramid of Khufu or Pyramid of Cheops. Later, during the Middle and Late Kingdoms (c. 2040-300 CE), the Egyptians constructed a series of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards). These structures were adorned with a diverse range of artworks few of which survive including murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork, depicting various Gods, deities, rulers and symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic inscriptions. ROMAN CONSTRUCTION In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. We also have the first surviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius which includes extensive passages on construction techniques. Materials The great Roman breakthrough was the development of hydraulic lime mortar. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash the Romans managed to make a mortar that would harden under water. This provided them with a cheap material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering. The concrete, being formed of nothing more than rubble and mortar was cheap and very easy to produce, requiring relatively unskilled labour, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. Glass was commonly used in windows. Organisation of labour The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or freed men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task. Technology Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajans column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved. A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres. Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain. Roman Architecture Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially practical people with a flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the construction of arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all visual arts. However, without Roman art with its genius for copying and adapting Greek styles most of the artistic achievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost. Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Drainage was a common problem, as was security. This, together with Romes growing desire to increase its power and majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths (eg. the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of the two roads. They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey apartment blocks. Architectural Advances: Arches Concrete Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new materials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in the construction of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency and capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed to support the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building of larger open areas under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important secular and Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon. Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman architect Vitruvius (c. 78-10 BCE) in his book De Architectura. This is exemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus cementicium), a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BCE. This exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionized Roman engineering and architecture. As tile-covered concrete began to replace marble as the main building material, architects could be more daring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with its undomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and became less geometric and more free-flowing. Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome embellished their public buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of the Emperor), fresco murals, and mosaics. Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (the elliptical Flavian amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajans Column (a monument to the Emperor Trajan). Situated to the east of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum took 8 years to build, had seating for 50,000 spectators. Historians and archeologists estimate that a staggering 500,000 people and over 1 million wild animals perished in the games at the Colosseum. Trajans Column, located close to the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum, was finished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly detailed spiral bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times, and narrates Trajans victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is made from 20 huge blocks of Carrara marble, each weighing about 40 tons. It stands about 30 metres in height and 4 metres in width. USING RELEVANT SKETCHES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF THE GLOBE USE BUILDING ENVELOPE TO ACHIEVE INTERNAL COMFORT. A building envelope includes all the components that make up the shell or skin of the building. These components separate the exterior of the building from the interior, and are designed by the project architect or engineers to meet the needs of each individual application. The building envelope may also be defined as the components that separate conditioned areas from unconditioned space. Exterior or unheated living spaces are not included inside the envelope, while any living space that is equipped with heat or air conditioning would be included. The building envelope must be carefully designed with regard to climate, ventilation, and energy consumption within the structure. There are four basic functions of the building envelope. These include adding structural support, controlling moisture and humidity, regulating temperature, and controlling air pressure changes. By serving these different functions, the envelope also affects ventilation and energy use within the building. The envelope is made up of all of the exterior components of the building, including walls, roofing, foundations, windows, and doors. Finish materials like siding and decorative items are not usually considered a part of the envelope. Insulation, building paper, and other components aimed at controlling moisture and airflow are typically included in the building envelope design. Building envelopes are often characterized as tight or loose. A tight envelope is precisely constructed to allow relatively few air leaks. This often requires significant quantities of insulation, caulk, sealants, and energy-efficient windows to create a tight shell for the building. Loosely-constructed envelopes allow air to flow more freely from the exterior to interior spaces. A loose envelope may be created by design, or may be the result of poor construction techniques. Many experts debate the benefits of tight versus loose building envelopes. A tight envelope allows for a high level of control over indoor air quality, energy consumption, temperature, and humidity levels. It leads to fewer drafts and a more comfortable environment for occupants, and often results in less waste in heating and cooling costs. Tightly-designed envelopes also reduce the likelihood of mold or mildew caused by moisture infiltration, which may prolong the life of building components. At the same time, tighter buildings also limit how much natural ventilation can occur, which leads to more extensive mechanical ventilation requirements. A loosely-constructed building envelope allows natural air transfers to occur, which improves indoor air quality and often eliminates the need for mechanical ventilation. At the same time these looser buildings tend to be more drafty and uncomfortable, and can make it difficult to regulate temperature levels. There is an increased chance of moisture-related mold, and higher quantities of heated or cooled air are able to escape through leaks in the envelope. This can increase energy bills and negatively impact the environment by increasing greenhouse gas levels. The building envelope is the area that separates conditioned space from unconditioned space or outside air. In this picture, the building envelope is the area surrounded by the insulation. The code is only concerned with the building envelope.