Historical perspective of modes of construction of buildings free essay sample

The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilisations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. MATERIALS The chief building material was the mud brick, formed in wooden moulds. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, bricks were also being fired and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT GREECE The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However very many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc. ), so our knowledge of how these were put together is purely conjectural. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. Before 650 B. C. E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or petrified carpentry. Fire clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. Fired bricks were not commonly employed. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion. Building structures used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could achieved. However, the Greeks did construct Arch Bridges. Greek mathematics was technically advanced and we know for certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was simply left until the drums of the columns were cut in place. The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction. Design of Assyrian buildings, fortifications and temples Tell Asmar Standing man votive sculpture 2750-2600 B. C The plans of all the Assyrian buildings are rectangular, and we know that long ago, as now, the Eastern architects used this outline almost invariably, and upon it reared some of the most lovely and varied forms ever devised. They gather over the angles by graceful curves, and on the basis of an ordinary square hall carry up a minaret or a dome, an octagon or a circle. That this was sometimes done in Assyria is shown by the sculptures. Slabs from Kouyunjik show domes of varied form, and tower-like structures, each rising from a square base. The resemblance between the ancient form of the dome and those still used in the Assyrian villages is very striking. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas-reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well-nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty-eight towers have been traced, and at Kouyunjik there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun-dried bricks. At Khorsabad there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1. 2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval machicolations, and are finished at top with battlements, remains of which have been found at Nimroud and Kouyunjik, and at Kale Shortage, the supposed capital of Assyria before Nineveh. But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of Nuba at Borsippa (now Birs Nimrod), near Babylon, which has been identified as the temple of the Seven Spheres. This was reconstructed by Nebuchadnezzar, as appears by a well-known inscription. Another example is at Muggier, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: kisubbu) which was used alternatively for agriculture and waste disposal. External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal. This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia. In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B. C. , found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient Assyrian fountain discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream. The water was led from small conduits. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT EGYPT As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings. MATERIALS Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork. The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger blocks may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete. TECHNOLOGY Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of slaves. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps. OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force. The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion. Pyramids at Giza. In the background from L to R: The Pyramid of Menkaure, The Pyramid of Khafre and The Great Pyramid of Khufu. Egyptian Architecture The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin was that of Egypt (c. 3100-2040 BCE). In addition to its own written language, religion and dynastic ruling class, it developed a unique style of Egyptian architecture, largely consisting of massive burial chambers in the form of Pyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate Valley of the Kings, Luxor). Design was monumental but not architecturally complex and employed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian expertise in stone had a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examples of Egyptian pyramid architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) designed by Imhotep one of the greatest architects of the ancient world and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2550 BCE), also called the Pyramid of Khufu or Pyramid of Cheops. Later, during the Middle and Late Kingdoms (c. 2040-300 CE), the Egyptians constructed a series of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards). These structures were adorned with a diverse range of artworks few of which survive including murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork, depicting various Gods, deities, rulers and symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic inscriptions. ROMAN CONSTRUCTION In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. We also have the first surviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius which includes extensive passages on construction techniques. Materials The great Roman breakthrough was the development of hydraulic lime mortar. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash the Romans managed to make a mortar that would harden under water. This provided them with a cheap material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering. The concrete, being formed of nothing more than rubble and mortar was cheap and very easy to produce, requiring relatively unskilled labour, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. Glass was commonly used in windows. Organisation of labour The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or freed men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task. Technology Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajans column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved. A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres. Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain. Roman Architecture Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially practical people with a flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the construction of arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all visual arts. However, without Roman art with its genius for copying and adapting Greek styles most of the artistic achievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost. Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Drainage was a common problem, as was security. This, together with Romes growing desire to increase its power and majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths (eg. the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of the two roads. They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey apartment blocks. Architectural Advances: Arches Concrete Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new materials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in the construction of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency and capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed to support the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building of larger open areas under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important secular and Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon. Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman architect Vitruvius (c. 78-10 BCE) in his book De Architectura. This is exemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus cementicium), a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BCE. This exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionized Roman engineering and architecture. As tile-covered concrete began to replace marble as the main building material, architects could be more daring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with its undomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and became less geometric and more free-flowing. Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome embellished their public buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of the Emperor), fresco murals, and mosaics. Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (the elliptical Flavian amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajans Column (a monument to the Emperor Trajan). Situated to the east of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum took 8 years to build, had seating for 50,000 spectators. Historians and archeologists estimate that a staggering 500,000 people and over 1 million wild animals perished in the games at the Colosseum. Trajans Column, located close to the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum, was finished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly detailed spiral bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times, and narrates Trajans victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is made from 20 huge blocks of Carrara marble, each weighing about 40 tons. It stands about 30 metres in height and 4 metres in width. USING RELEVANT SKETCHES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF THE GLOBE USE BUILDING ENVELOPE TO ACHIEVE INTERNAL COMFORT. A building envelope includes all the components that make up the shell or skin of the building. These components separate the exterior of the building from the interior, and are designed by the project architect or engineers to meet the needs of each individual application. The building envelope may also be defined as the components that separate conditioned areas from unconditioned space. Exterior or unheated living spaces are not included inside the envelope, while any living space that is equipped with heat or air conditioning would be included. The building envelope must be carefully designed with regard to climate, ventilation, and energy consumption within the structure. There are four basic functions of the building envelope. These include adding structural support, controlling moisture and humidity, regulating temperature, and controlling air pressure changes. By serving these different functions, the envelope also affects ventilation and energy use within the building. The envelope is made up of all of the exterior components of the building, including walls, roofing, foundations, windows, and doors. Finish materials like siding and decorative items are not usually considered a part of the envelope. Insulation, building paper, and other components aimed at controlling moisture and airflow are typically included in the building envelope design. Building envelopes are often characterized as tight or loose. A tight envelope is precisely constructed to allow relatively few air leaks. This often requires significant quantities of insulation, caulk, sealants, and energy-efficient windows to create a tight shell for the building. Loosely-constructed envelopes allow air to flow more freely from the exterior to interior spaces. A loose envelope may be created by design, or may be the result of poor construction techniques. Many experts debate the benefits of tight versus loose building envelopes. A tight envelope allows for a high level of control over indoor air quality, energy consumption, temperature, and humidity levels. It leads to fewer drafts and a more comfortable environment for occupants, and often results in less waste in heating and cooling costs. Tightly-designed envelopes also reduce the likelihood of mold or mildew caused by moisture infiltration, which may prolong the life of building components. At the same time, tighter buildings also limit how much natural ventilation can occur, which leads to more extensive mechanical ventilation requirements. A loosely-constructed building envelope allows natural air transfers to occur, which improves indoor air quality and often eliminates the need for mechanical ventilation. At the same time these looser buildings tend to be more drafty and uncomfortable, and can make it difficult to regulate temperature levels. There is an increased chance of moisture-related mold, and higher quantities of heated or cooled air are able to escape through leaks in the envelope. This can increase energy bills and negatively impact the environment by increasing greenhouse gas levels. The building envelope is the area that separates conditioned space from unconditioned space or outside air. In this picture, the building envelope is the area surrounded by the insulation. The code is only concerned with the building envelope.