The role of icts in addressing challenges in higher education

The role of icts in addressing challenges in higher education ABSTRACT One of the most common problems of using Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in education is to base choices on technological possibilities rather than educational needs. In developing countries where higher education is fraught with serious challenges at multiple levels, there is increasing pressure to ensure that technological possibilities are viewed in the context of educational needs. This paper argues that a central role of educational technology is to provide additional strategies that can be used to address the serious environmental and educational challenges faced by educators and students in higher education. The educational needs manifest in Indian universities include addressing general lack of academic preparedness, multilingual needs in English medium settings, large class sizes and inadequate curriculum design. Using case studies from one higher educational institution, this paper shows how specific and carefully considered interventions using ICTs can be used to address these teaching and learning concerns. These examples serve to demonstrate some ways in which teaching and learning may be enhanced when uses of educational technology are driven by educational needs. The paper concludes that design of educational technology interventions should be driven by educational needs within the context of a broader teaching and learning strategy which requires buy-in of both educators and learners. INTRODUCTION It has been suggested that information and communication technologies (ICTs) can and do play a number of roles in education. These include providing a catalyst for rethinking teaching practice (Flecknoe, 2002; McCormick Scrimshaw, 2001); developing the kind of graduates and citizens required in an information society (Department of Education, 2001); improving educational outcomes (especially pass rates) and enhancing and improving the quality of teaching and learning (Wagner, 2001; Garrison Anderson, 2003). While all of these suggest the potential impact of ICTs in education in general and India in particular, it is still difficult to demonstrate the potential of technologies in addressing specific teaching and learning problems faced by Indian higher education institutions. The thesis of this paper is that the potential of ICTs is sandwiched between increasing pressure on higher education institutions from government to meet the social transformation and skills needs of India, and the varying student academic preparedness, large class sizes and multilingualism currently experienced in these teaching and learning contexts. Our thinking aligns with others (such as Kirkup Kirkwood, 2005; Wagner, 2001) who argue that it is the contextualized teaching and learning needs that ought to drive the ICT intervention, rather than the technology itself. In India, contextualization of teaching and learning requires a tightrope walk between higher education imperatives and social-cultural context of the educational landscape. This paper illustrates by means of examples drawn from one higher education institution how educational needs can drive design of learning environments and technological use. The question driving this paper is: How may educational technology interventions address theteaching and learning challenges faced by Indian higher education institutions? We discuss the general and specific educational challenges. These challenges then provide a context for an ICT intervention framework which is described and examples of the use of this framework in curriculum projects are discussed. CHALLENGES FACING HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA General challenges Currently, higher education in India is under increasing pressure to meet the social transformation and skills needs of the new India (Kistan, 2002). At the same time it is under immense external and internal pressure to improve on its policy and delivery performance (De Clercq, 2002). One of the indicators of social transformation in education is increasing the demographic representation among graduates and reducing the demographic difference between student intake and graduate throughput. The National Higher Education Plan (2001) outlines the role of higher education institutions in the new India: The key challenges facing the Indian higher education system remain as outlined inthe White Paper: ‘to redress past inequalities and to transform the higher education systemto serve a new social order, to meet pressing national needs, and to respond to newrealities and opportunities (White Paper: 1.1). (Department of Education India,2001.) Furthermore, recent government policy has added pressure on higher education institutions by linking funding to throughput. In other words, unlike in the past when institutions were funded on the number of registered first year students, funding is now linked to graduate throughput. Improving efficiency and addressing the equity needs of the country raises conflicting challenges for higher education institutions (Scott, 2004: 1). These challenges are exacerbated by the fact that most students enter university under-prepared and therefore require more support to bridge the gaps in the required knowledge and skills (Paras, 2001). Furthermore, in 2005 quality assurance audits1 focusing on the institutional management of core functions of teaching and learning, research and community engagement were conducted at Indian higher education institutions. The challenge for higher education institutions is therefore not only about increasing throughput in terms of numbers and the diversity of i ts student population but also involves ensuring quality educational provision. The Indian government has identified the use of ICTs for teaching and learning as an important priority. For example, the e-Education policy states: Every Indian manager, teacher and learner in the general and further education andtraining bands will be ICT capable (that is, use ICTs confidently and creatively to helpdevelop the skills and knowledge they need as lifelong learners to achieve personal goalsand to be full participants in the global community) by 2013. (Department of EducationIndia, 2004: 17) Thus, the ultimate goal of the policy is the realization of ICT-capable managers, educators and learners by 2013. Read together with the National Higher Education Plan, these two policies have ramifications for instructional designers, educators, students and researchers. The underlying argument of this paper is that the realization of the policys goals largely depends on the extent to which current educational challenges are re-conceptualised in the context of the role that ICT can play in teaching and learning. The current focus on teaching and learning coupled with growth in educational technology in Indian higher education institutions (Czerniewicz et al., 2005: The role of ICTs in higher education in India61) requires that we begin to ask questions about the ways in which educational technology contributes to addressing the educational challenges in the new India. As is the case in higher education globally, Indian higher education is under pressure to increase participation fro m diverse groups of students and to produce the skills required for a rapidly changing society. In the UK, for example, participation in higher education has increased since the 1940s but participation of higher socio-economic groups still exceeds that of lower socio-economic groups (DFES report, 2004). While similar, these challenges take particular forms given Indias unique history. For example, global disparities are defined in terms of class; in India the educational disparities are manifested along racial lines due to the political, economic and social policies of the pre-1994 era. Redress of marginalised groups and social transformation is therefore central to the policies of post-1994. The Indian government has made it clear that one of its aims is to achieve equitable access to higher education for previously disadvantaged learners, with diverse educational backgrounds (Hardman Ngambi, 2003). Education is viewed as one of the key mechanisms of achieving social transformation. It is in this educational context that new opportunities for educational technology have arisen. Although we are aware that educational challenges demand multi-pronged approaches, which may include both traditional teaching approaches and innovative non- digital instructional designs, it is the role of educational technology that is the focus of this paper. Specific teaching and learning challenges The major teaching and learning challenges facing higher education revolve around student diversity, which includes, amongst others, diversity in students academic preparedness, language and schooling background. Teaching and learning in higher education in general can largely be characterised as follows: [] instruction that is too didactic, a lack of personal contact between teachers andstudents and among students, assessment methods that are inadequate to measuresophisticated learning goals and too little opportunity for students to integrate knowledgefrom different fields and apply what they learn to the solution of real-world problems.(Knapper, 2001: 94) Teaching and learning in Indian higher education fits the above description but in addition it has to contend with deep-rooted complex issues and problems stemming primarily from a previously racially divided and unequal education system. In addition, large classes are an endemic feature of most university courses posing an additional challenge in the teaching of a diverse student population. Indian higher education institutions are faced with a myriad teaching and learning challenges. In this paper we focus on a few of these: academic preparedness, multilingulism in a first language context, large classes and inadequate curriculum design. In the next section, we look at ways in which ICTs have been used to respond to these challenges at one Indian higher education institution. Academic preparedness Students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds as well students from privileged backgrounds generally enter higher education with gaps in the knowledge and skills required for studying particularly in key areas such as mathematics (Paras, 2001, Howie Pietersen, 2001) and science. Given the pressure to increase the diversity of the student population of Indian higher education, assessing students potential for success in higher education has gained increasing importance, particularly since the school-leaving certificate is currently viewed as an inadequate measure of a students potential for success in higher education. In a country such as India, for instance, school-leaving certification has had aparticularly unreliable relationship with higher education academic performance especiallyin cases where this certification intersects with factors such as mother tongue versusmedium-of instruction differences, inadequate school backgrounds and demographicvariables such as race and socio-economic status (Yeld, 2001; Badha, et al, 1986;Scochet, 1986; Potter Jamotte, 1985). (Cliff et al., 2003) Alternative placement tests have therefore been used in conjunction with school-leaving certificates to admit students with potential into higher education studies (Cliff et al., 2003). Consequently, many of these students may be under-prepared in that they may not possess the necessary language or mathematical proficiencies required for higher education or may have gaps in the foundational disciplinary knowledge. Furthermore, university tasks present challenges for under-prepared students (Hardman Ngambi, 2003). Although support programmes to address academic under-preparedness of students from both advantaged as well as disadvantaged groups are offered at many Indian higher education institutions, they are resource intensive. It is therefore worth paying attention to additional resources and expertise offered by educational technology. Multilingualism in a first language environment India is a multilingual society with 11 official languages. This diversity is reflected in the student population of Indian higher education institutions. A recent study by Czerniewicz Brown (2005) on higher education students and academic staffs access to and use of computers in five Indian universities found that 39% of respondents spoke English as a home language and 54% spoke other languages. At the University of Cape Town, on average 65% of the student population declared English as their first language while 35% have home languages in the other Indian official languages and other international languages (Spiegel et al., 2003). English is therefore a second or foreign language for many Indian higher education students. In most black Indian schools, English as a subject is taught as a second language. Higher education students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds therefore have to learn in their second or third language. A considerable body of research (Cummins, 1996; Gee, 1990) has shown that language and academic success are closely related and that academic language proficiency is far more difficult to acquire in a second language. Students learning in their second or third language are therefore at a disadvantage which is compounded by poor schooling background. The relationship between language and academic success is reflected in the throughput rates of English second language students when compared to the throughput rates of English first language students. At the University of Cape Town, for example, the difference in throughput rates between English first language and second language students in 2002 was more than 20% in several degrees/programmes (Spiegel et al., 2003). Large classes The growth of mass higher education has made large classes an endemic feature of several courses at higher education institutions. Large class sizes make it difficult for teachers to employ interactive teaching strategies (Nicol Boyle, 2003) or to gain insight into the difficulties experienced by students. Large classes pose problems for all students but students who are under-prepared are particularly affected. It is these contexts that provide useful opportunities for educational technologies. Curriculum design Curriculum design is a relatively under-engaged area within higher education debate, policy formulation and practices (Barnett Coate, 2005). Pressure to transform curricula at a macrolevel to the needs of industry and the economy in India is reflected in the National commission on higher educations policy framework (1996) for higher education transformation. There is a strong inclination towards closed-system disciplinary approaches andprogrammes that has led to inadequately contextualised teaching and research. Thecontent of the knowledge produced and disseminated is insufficiently responsive to theproblems and needs of the African continent, the southern African region, or the vastnumbers of poor and rural people in our society.In response to policy intentions, Indian higher education has implemented a curriculum restructuring policy aimed at the development of inter- or multidisciplinary degree programmes (Moore, 2003). While policy has resulted in curriculum shifts on a macro le vel, curricula contents at a micro-level are driven by disciplinary specialists. Undergraduate curricula remain predominantly theoretical but require that students have some knowledge of the contexts to make sense of theory. In this paper, we are concerned with the way in which ICTs can play a role in shaping curriculum design at the micro-level. ICTs open up new ways of accessing information thereby changing the relationships between students and between students and their teachers. Access to primary sources in the form of video, audio and photographs which may be contained in digital archives have the potential to influence the content of curricula because it makes previously inaccessible information available. In addition, ICTs enable lecturers to transform their teaching practices by facilitating student-student discussion and collaboration or by simulating ‘real-world problems thus providing students with authentic learning experiences. In this section, we discussed some of the teaching and learning challenges experienced by educators and students in higher education. In the next section, we examine the role of educational technology in responding to these challenges and provide some examples. RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES Since the teaching and learning challenges are multi-faceted, multi-pronged approaches are needed in order to attempt to solve some of these problems. Dede (1998) postulates: [] information technology is a cost-effective investment only in the context of a systemicreform. Unless other simultaneous innovations in pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, andschool organization are coupled to the usage of instructional technology, the time and effortexpended on implementing these devices produces few improvements in educationaloutcomes and reinforces many educators cynicism about fads based on magicalmachines. We infer from Dede that there are several inter-related factors that influence improvements in educational outcomes. Thus together, pedagogy, curriculum, assessment and organisation contribute to bringing about improvements in the educational process. Although educational technology is not the panacea for educational challenges, it does leverage and extend traditional teaching and learning activities in certain circumstances and hence has the potential to impact on learning outcomes. Knapper (2001) argues that: [] technology may be a good solution for some instructional problems, and in some casesit may be a partial solution. But in other instances technology does little to address thefundamental teaching and learning issue or even worse provides a glitzy butinappropriate solution to a problem that has simply been misconstrued. (Knapper, 2001:94) The trick is to identify situations where educational technology will be appropriate and when and how to use educational technology in these situations. There are times where technology may not be useful and may indeed be counter-productive. However, there are many times when educational technology offers a solution for problems that would be difficult, cumbersome or impossible to resolve in a face-to-face environment. Numerous manuals, websites and articles have been devoted to suggesting, explaining and modelling the ways that educational technology can be used to support teaching and learning. We agree with Laurillard (2001) that it is important that educational technology-based resources be appropriately matched to both teaching and learning activities. Table 1 adapted from Laurillard (2001) usefully explains how educational technology can be integrated into the curriculum. Laurillards guidelines are useful in that they provide a framework which relates ICT-based resources to particular teaching and learning activities. The guidelines therefore suggest particular uses of ICT for particular teaching and learning situations. The effectiveness of ICTs for teaching and learning, however, is largely dependent on how much the context is understood. Thus, there is a need to relate educational technology to actual challenges experienced by both students and lecturers in the Indian educational context. OHagan (1999) suggests that educational technology can be used to present and provide content, assess students learning, provide feedback, scaffold student learning and enable peer-to-peer collaborative learning. The choice of appropriate teaching and learning activities is dependent on a range of factors such as the curriculum or course objectives; i.e. the purpose of the teaching and learning, the educators preferred teaching approach, the learning styles of the student and the nature of the curriculum content. Although we advocate that teachers should use the teaching approach that suits their paradigm of teaching and learning, we believe that the use of educational technology provides teachers with opportunities for traversing an entire continuum of possibilities as may be appropriate to their teaching needs. Educational technology creates affordances for a range of different teaching and learning activities which the teacher may not have used or considered. Table 1: Teaching and learning events and associated media forms Responding to the challenges: examples from curriculum projects The affordances of educational technologies provide ways of being sensitive to wide-ranging and differing learning needs. In this section, we describe some curriculum projects that have attempted to respond to some of the educational challenges faced by students at the University of Cape Town (UCT). For the sake of brevity only overviews are provided. Using interactive spreadsheets to develop mathematical literacy skills As discussed above, many under-prepared students entering university have potential but do not possess the relevant mathematical literacy skills required for certain courses (Frith et al., 2004). These students are often expected to pursue an extended undergraduate degree programme that offers additional support to address mathematical literacy skills. In this case, the teaching challenge is that of finding ways of developing students mathematical literacy skills. Selfcontained interactive spreadsheet-based tutorials were developed for use on the mathematical literacy support courses at UCT and were used in conjunction with face-to-face lectures. A typical tutorial consisted of interactive presentation of relevant mathematics content, examples and exercises. Students were able to work at their own pace and receive immediate feedback. Frith et al. (2004: 163) found that ‘while the lecture room tutorial taught students how to calculate the various statistics, the computer tutoria l was more effective in giving them an understanding of the concepts and they retained better what they had learned. This effect, they argue, is possible due to the shift in emphasis in the computer-based tutorials away from mechanical calculations to demonstrating conceptual understanding. This curriculum project illustrates how educational technology was used to complement teaching and learning and to support the development of students mathematical literacy skills. Using educational technology to develop academic literacy in an economics course Economics at university level poses particular difficulties for students since lecturers assume prior knowledge of the economy. Unfortunately, many students from previously disadvantaged communities have very limited knowledge of the economy at the start of their university careers. Under-prepared first year students encounter further difficulties due to a lack of academic literacy skills. The Industry Research Project (Carr et al., 2002) was designed to address economic literacy while simultaneously dealing with language and communication skills of UCT economic students. Interactive excel spreadsheets in conjunction with short writing tasks in the form of online discussions, short essays, reports and presentations were used in academic development economics courses at UCT. These tasks or activities provided a range of opportunities for students to develop understanding of economic discourses through writing in economics. Although Carr et al. (2002: 5) found it difficult to measure t he impact of these tutorials, which formed a small part of the first year economics curriculum, they observed that the interactive spreadsheets were effective teaching tools in that tutors were able to focus students attention on economics issues rather than procedural issues and that the quality of articles produced by students improved due to the online feedback provided during the process of drafting articles online. This curriculum project demonstrates the use of educational technology in conjunction with face-to-face activities in addressing students academic literacy skills. Using educational technology to manage tutorials in large classes Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) based tutorials system called MOVES were developed around Excel and Word to teach computer literacy to first year Information System students at UCT. MOVES incorporated computer-assisted marking techniques and provided feedback to lecturers and students. The significance of this project is that it typifies the problems of teaching a large and diverse class. The computer literacy levels of these students are diverse, with some students not havingtouched a computer before to students who have had home computer and internet facilitiessince the age of five. The immediate challenge this diversity poses on teaching is that it isnot practical to pitch the lecture at an appropriate level to meet all students at their level ofknowledge. The other challenge is in providing feedback messages that are relevant anduseful to individual students. (Ngambi Seymour, 2004: 255). Ngambi and Seymour (2004: 257) report that the MOVES tutorials saved time for tutors since tutorials were marked and results captured electronically, lecturers had access to student performance and students found the immediate feedback useful in that misconceptions could be dealt with immediately. The significance of this project is that it illustrates how educational technology is used to facilitate teaching and learning in large classes. Influencing curriculum design Many university courses are theory driven and assume that students have knowledge or real world experience and can therefore make the links between theory and practice. Students often have limited experience or practical knowledge and therefore have difficulty in understanding theory. Deacon et al. (2005) report on the use of educational technology to simulate film editing. The Directors Cut was produced and used in a Film and Media course at UCT to provide students with insights into the practical processes involved in filmmaking without engaging in the actual process of editing. Exposing students to actual editing is expensive and impractical in a large course. The intervention provided individual students with an authentic learning environment through a simulation. Students sequenced film clips, hence simulating the role of an editor through a simplified version of the editing process. In this way, the focus is on key learning aspects of film narrative and spectatorship and linked theory to the ‘practice of film editing. Similarly, Carr et al. (2004) report on an International Trade bargaining simulation developed for an economics course where students assumed the role of national trade negotiators representing specific countries. Lecturers and tutors assumed the role of World Trade Organisation (WTO) officials in a semi-authentic process designed to teach students negotiation and bargaining skills similar to those required by professional trade negotiators. The two projects reported here exemplify ways in which educational technology was used to impact on the design of the respective curricula by providing students with experiences which are difficult to provide in face-to-face environments. CONCLUSION Indian universities face increasing pressure from government to meet the needs of social transformation in education. Indian government policy on social transformation in education requires increasing the representation of Black Indians and women among students and graduates and significantly improving the graduation rates and throughput of Black Indian students. Given the social-historical context of India, meeting the educational challenges associated with this noble goal requires re-conceptualisation of how educational technologies are applied so as to make an impact. The paper has proposed a model for teaching and learning activities that are associated with media forms. The model has been substantiated with examples of the application of educational technologies to teaching mathematical literacy, academic literacy, management of large classes, and ways of influencing curriculum design. Our argument is that technology alone is not a solution to the educational challenges faced in India. The challenges lie in identifying and conceptualising ways that educational technology can usefully contribute to student learning experiences, curriculum and pedagogical designs. The paper demonstrates and argues that educational technology has a key role to play in Indian higher education as one of the strategies for addressing teaching and learning concerns. This challenges learning designers to rethink the role of educational technology within broader educational interventions that are shaped by educational needs rather than being technologically driven.

The Painted Veil – Presentation Note

Lift Not The Painted Veil Which Those Who Live Lift not the painted veil which those who live Call Life: though unreal shapes be pictured there, And it but mimic all we would believe With colours idly spread,–behind, lurk Fear And Hope, twin Destinies; who ever weave Their shadows, o'er the chasm, sightless and drear. I knew one who had lifted it–he sought, For his lost heart was tender, things to love, But found them not, alas! nor was there aught The world contains, the which he could approve. Through the unheeding many he did move, A splendour among shadows, a bright blot Upon this gloomy scene, a Spirit that stroveFor truth, and like the Preacher found it not. Percy Bysshe Shelley Charlie Townsend Post: married British vice consul = smart, sensible and he knows very well of what’s going on evidence – after walter walked away when he first found them in Kitty’s room, kitty was so panic but townsend knows that Dr. Fane will do nth. To cause any sc andal – when he’s discussing about the dealing with strikes(walkouts)/ boycotts in Shanghai with businessmen in the Colony Club, he banned the suggestion of seeking help from Chiang Kai-Shek as he knew that he’s a nationalist that must stand on the side of Chinese, he will not help them suppressing the strike. mature and experienced woman-hunter , very dissolute person and he’s unfaithful to his wife Evidence –flirted kitty from the very first moment they’ve met when they’re watching the Chinese opera ?Telling kitty what happened to the actor in the opera which he thinks that it may be similar to Kitty (she weeps for the lively, vivacious girl she once was? the lonely woman she has become; she weeps for the love she’ll never feel, for the love she’ll never give) to flirt Kitty ? made Kitty believes that he understands her, admire her ? Charlie Townsend found it so easy to get hold of her As described by Waddington: he ha d his little flirtations +As described by Dorothy: the women who fell for her husband were so consistently second-rate ? even his wife knows that her husband is a gallant/licentious/dissolute person that flirts many women +having an affair with Kitty? adultery, he only sees Kitty as his mistress to satisfy his physical needs (attachment: lever) Dorothy is more important to him because â€Å"whatever happens, we must try to keep Dorothy out of it† ? did not want to hurt Dorothy and nth in the world could induce him to divorce herWomen are always under the impression that men love them more that they really do. Film language – = selfish, vain and incapable of caring for anyone but himself Care for his reputation/ job/ post: â€Å"do you have any idea of the importance of my station here? † – at that time, there’ll be many rumors that ruin the reputation of a man if anyone divorce his wife and marry another woman. Therefore he cares more about his rep utation, his position than what will happen on Kitty if he does not marry her, as Kitty is just someone means very little to him.Film language – =a person who made false promise Evidence – sent kitty a ring as a gift – RING: symbolize love, faith and commitment. He proclaimed that he loves Kitty when he was having sex with Kitty, actually he does not love her, it’s just a way to flirt Kitty and make Kitty willing to continue the affair with him. – promised that he would help solve the problem when Kitty was forced to be divorced. After 5 years, at last, he still did nth, not even a letter to show his concern. â€Å"I should have written†Film language – Why Townsend treat Kitty as close as 5 years ago when he later met her in London? =the only one that failed to change in the film He never learn from any experience or errors that he has made; Besides, he does not think that he had done sth wrong? does not feel sorry /guilty for breakin g Kitty’s marriage He tried to date Kitty again in his later few weeks in London (to see if there’re any more chances for him to flirt kitty again, like 5 years ago) – described by Kitty – â€Å"no one important† 0th century that artists began to use it fully; a pipe would stand for thoughtfulness and calm; the cigarette symbolized modernity, strength and youth, but also nervous anxiety; the cigar was a sign of authority, wealth and power. The decades following World War II, during the apex of smoking when the practice had still not come under fire by the growing anti-smoking movement, a cigarette casually tucked between the lips represented the young rebel, epitomized in actors like Marlon Brando and James Dean or mainstays of advertising like the Marlboro Man.It was not until the 1970s when the negative aspects of smoking began to appear; the unhealthy lower-class loser, reeking of cigarette smoke and lack of motivation and drive, especially in a rt inspired or commissioned by anti-smoking campaigns. [ Literature Just as in other types of fiction, smoking has had an important place in literature and smokers are often portrayed as characters with great individuality, or outright eccentrics, something typically personified in one of the most iconic smoking literary figures of all, Sherlock Holmes.Other than being a frequent part of short stories and novels, smoking has spawned endless eulogies, praising its qualities and affirming the author's identity as a devoted smoker. Especially during the late 19th century and early 20th century, a panoply of books with titles like Tobacco: Its History and associations (1876), Cigarettes in Fact and Fancy (1906) and Pipe and Pouch: The Smokers Own Book of Poetry (1905) were written in the UK and the US.The titles were written by men for other men and contained general tidbits and poetic musings about the love for tobacco and all things related to it, and frequently praised the refined ba chelor's life. The Fragrant Weed: Some of the Good Things Which Have been Said or Sung about Tobacco, published in 1907, contained, among many others, the following lines from the poem A Bachelor's Views by Tom Hall that were typical of the attitude in many of the books: The cover of My Lady Nicotine: A Study in Smoke (1896) by J. M. Barrie, otherwise best known for his play Peter Pan. â€Å"So let us drinkTo her, – but think Of him who has to keep her; And sans a wife Let's spend our life In bachelordom, – it's cheaper. † —Eugene Umberger[68] These works were all published in an era before the cigarette had become the dominant form of tobacco consumption and pipes, cigars and chewing tobacco were still commonplace. Many of the books were published in novel packaging that would attract the learned smoking gentleman. Pipe and Pouch came in a leather bag resembling a tobacco pouch and Cigarettes in Fact and Fancy (1901) came bound in leather, packaged in an imitation cardboard cigar box.By the late 1920s, the publication of this type of literature largely abated and was only sporadically revived in the later 20th century. [69] Cigarettes in old films were early forms of ‘product placement' 5. Cigarettes as Phallic Symbols Back during the Hays Code days, cigarettes were clever devices used as metaphoric hints at sexual activity. When characters shared cigarettes, such as in Now, Voyager, To Have and Have Not and Rope, it implied a sex act. When Marlene Dietrich held a cigarette in any of her films, the prop was a phallic symbol implicit in projecting an image of bisexuality.And ironically, in a film as explicit as 9 ? Weeks, a cigarette may have been a required stand-in for Mickey Rourke’s penis during a strip-tease scene, because male nudity continues to be a taboo while the naked female body is common on the big screen. However, not all cigarettes in films represent sex and/or phallus, but due to the heavy employment of the prop in such a way for so many years, it’s hard for moviegoers (particularly those of us with film studies degrees) to think of them as anything but sex symbols.Fortunately, Hollywood is being forced to censor out cigarettes from their movies (for even featuring a pack of cigarettes), and meanwhile they continue to break sexual taboos at the same time. So this cliche is likely to go way very soon. Friendship Since friendship is not a very important issue in the Painted Veil, Compared to love and death, I’ll just talk about the more significant one. = kitty and Waddington At the very first beginning: Then: At the end: = Dr Fane and Colonel Yu When Colonel Yu met Walter, Then, after At the end: =Kitty and sung chingAt first, Sung Ching was appointed by Colonel Yu to protect Kitty due to the anti-foreigner atmosphere in china, kitty felt like she was guard as a prisoner Then, she started to reject Sun Ching’s protection and treat him badly when she was finding Mr. Waddington for mailing the letter, tell him to go away and she does not need him At the climax of the anti-foreigner movement, Sun Ching saved Kitty and Walter from the crowd, on the next day, kitty then ask Sun Ching to come with her friendly. Mei-tan-fu Background info = a village mad up by the author, not a real village (at first ? lanned to build a new village of Mei-tan-fu in Guangxi, however, the cost is too huge and overwhelming ? sent a scout to find a village for the film ? found a completely untouched village = Huang Yao – 800 years history; untouched because there’s no telegraph poles or anything else to contact people in other places? perfect for shooting The rivers and mountains shoots are taken from Huang Yao, it’s from Guangxi ~> on-location (means the film is shot at the actual place where the action occurs) Mei-tan fu is a place with many significance in the film, please pick one to and explain why.Significances: = new home of the Fanes = the place where death rest – Chinese villagers/ walter/ kitty seeing two corpses + colour of lights 1st: the corpse of a villager pass along the same road of Kitty and Walter’s sadden chairs 2nd: the hut where kitty and walter stays – the doll on the bed of kitty’s room Walter: â€Å"I won’t touch that if I were you, they may have died in that bed† 3rd: the corpse of a villager on the side of the road when Kitty walked out from Mr, Waddington’s house 4th: the bodies are buried too close to the river th: the death of Sister Maryse 6th: the soldiers removing corpses from the villagers’ house 7th:the death of walter =a place for reunion -kitty and walter=a place where they fall in love again Before the union, Walter and Kitty were separated spiritually due to the affair . /. kitty and charlie How – after kitty had heard from the nuns about Walter helping the orphans? stating to know that he is a good man and wants to impro ve their relationship.After Walter had seen Kitty playing with the orphans, he started to have better feelings for Kitty After the union, their relationship has been recovered, they even have sex after drinking with Mr. Waddington and XX. Then they travel on the boat to let Kitty visit the water XX. =changes brought by cholera(+ve and -ve) – kitty(+ve)/ walter(+ve &-ve)/ colonel yu(+ve) Described by Kitty- no place for a woman; madness for me to go Described by Dr. Fane – small town on a tributary of Yangtze River, in the interior Film language: colour of light, long shot,

Analysis Of Homer s The Odyssey - 1128 Words

The Odyssey shows a lot of different stereotypes for women throughout the book, taking action to get what they want. Odysseus is trying to get back home after ten long years since the fall of troy, and his son is going out to find him. Throughout the book Odysseus meets lots of woman who vary in personality. He meets woman with the stereotypes: â€Å"mantis†- dominant, eats its mate, destroys to gain power, feared by many. â€Å"Damsel in distress†- persecuted maiden, woman placed in a dire predicament requires a hero to rescue her, relatively weak and frail. â€Å"Seductress†- reveals a man s weakness, great beauty and sensuality, heavily chastised through alienationl rejection. He meets two woman named Circe and Calypso. Calypso whose is portrayed by Homer as a â€Å"Seductress† and Circe portrayed as a â€Å"Mantis†. He first has a love affair with the witch-goddess Circe, and later on gets imprisoned on Calypso’s island for 7 years. In Ho mer’s Odyssey, both Circe and Calypso seek power through female stereotypes; however, Circe and Calypso’s ability to understand helps them retain that power, conveying the message that once people understand each other good things can come out of it. Although Odysseus is married to Penelope and she refuses to marry another man, he has a couple love affairs throughout his journey. Circe and Calypso at first are very surprised that Odysseus has come to visit and have different reactions towards that. Calypso slowly starts to lure him in: â€Å" Come now, put up yourShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Homer s Odyssey By Homer1202 Words   |  5 Pagescoping with the idea of losing his father and letting others to rule Ithaca. It is noticeable from the beginning of The Odyssey, written by Homer that Telemachus finds himself in a complicated situation where his life is seen to be in danger. He is a character of being distance from people. The idea of Telemachus becoming his own father, threatens suitor’s control in Ithaca. Homer describes Telemachus as a teenager who has not found himself and is on a mission to become an adult as his father. TelemachusRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s Odyssey By Homer1095 Words   |  5 Pagesused in Hom er’s Odyssey is the digression. The digression is departure from the main storyline that does not alter the action of the story, but adds a layer of sentimental content to the plot which usually helps underscore themes central to the story. The digressions in the Odyssey are meticulously written with great attention to detail just like the rest of the epic, and they truly help readers grasp the important aspects of the story. The liberal use of digression in the Odyssey helps build a vividRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s Odyssey By Homer2018 Words   |  9 PagesThe Odyssey by Homer is more light in tone than the Iliad, of the same author: The good wins while the evil is punished. Even though the gods are still strict, the relationship between Odysseus and Athena is a more sincere and equal a relationship than between God and Man in the Iliad. Odysseus is distinguished not only by his bravery, but largely by his intellect and cunning. He is the type of resourceful man whom never gives up, thinks of the causes, is reverent and never gives in. The Odyssey isRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s Odyssey, By Homer915 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout the Odyssey, the hero, Odysseus is portrayed in two different and contradicting lights: the wise hero and the capricious leader blinded by his own pride. The epic writer, Homer, embodies the theme of hubris throughout Odysseus’ journey home. The idea of hubris, a trait of excessive pride, significantly develops personalities of characters within The Odyssey, and Homer ultimately creates a statement about excessive pride. The dual portrayal of Odysseus leads the reader to ultimatelyRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s Odyssey By Homer Essay1479 Words   |  6 Pages The word â€Å"Family†, according to Merriam Webster, is thought to be a group of people brought together by common affiliation. The same cannot be said for the culture in the Odyssey by Homer. In the Odyssey, Odysseus is trying to get back home from fighting in the Trojan War. He has been away from home for almost 20 years longing to just be reunited with his kinfolk. Along the way, he comes across many obstacles that hinders him from reaching his home and family in in Ithaca. Luckily, the memoriesRead MoreAnalysis Of Odyssey By Homer s Odyssey2253 Words   |  10 Pagesand Midwifery Council, 2006). The literature surrounding the subject of mentorship is vast and fails to provide a single definition, however the terms used are often similar. Colley (2000) writes that the word mentor originated in Homer’s poem ‘Odyssey’ in which the character oversees the development of Telemachus. Usually mentoring describes the process of an experienced team member using their skills and knowledge to educate and develop a junior or less skilled co-worker (Chartered Institute ofRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s The Odyssey 1483 Words   |  6 PagesViolence in The Odyssey Violence in Literature can take any form, whether it be natural disaster like and earthquake or a human based disaster like war (Campbell). In Homer’s The Odyssey both types are found†¦ whether it’s Odysseus’s hardships like making it home or dealing with the wrath of the god Poseidon. Every violent scene has its own reasons, some are more reasonable than others. For instance, the gods were angered by the disobedience of the mortals, this is more reasonable than the killingRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s The Odyssey 795 Words   |  4 Pages Odysseus Epic Hero In the Epic, â€Å"The Odyssey, spoken by Homer, conveys a heroic tale of an epic hero named, Odysseus, who faces many challenges as he sails to get home. One of the tasks Odysseus faces is, The Sirens, who challenge Odysseus s will power. Another challenge Odysseus encounters is, â€Å"The Cyclops, who torments and slaughters some of Odysseus s men due to his curiosity. One of the hardest threats he had to confront was, â€Å"The Land ofRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s The Odyssey1636 Words   |  7 PagesGreek society, Homer’s The Odyssey provides a detailed insight into the values of this intricate culture. In particular, this epic discusses the ways in which the deathless gods influence the fates of the mortals. The overall impact of the gods’ power is the mental straining that emerges from the unrelenting conflict of man versus immortal. Likewise, the actions and misfortunes of others also catalyze this extremely significant and powerful mental battle. Homerâ€⠄¢s The Odyssey reveals the values of ancientRead MoreAnalysis Of Homer s The Odyssey 1455 Words   |  6 PagesMarch 4th, 2016 Odysseus’s Voyage from Pride to Modesty In the Odyssey, Homer portrays Odysseus as a strong, courageous leader who not only uses his physical strength, but also, his wit to problem solve and defeat his opponents. While Odysseus possesses many valuable traits that help him become the great leader he is, he also has one major character flaw--his hubris. Through his long trek back home to his wife and estate in the Odyssey, we see Odysseus slowly grow as a person and become slightly more

Comparing Aristotle And John Stuart Mill - 1130 Words

Chelsea Kearney PHIL 231: Ethics 28 April 2015 Essay 2 Comparisons on Pleasure in Morality The role of pleasure in morality has been examined thoroughly throughout the beginning of philosophy and continues to be a questionable issue. With these in-depth examinations, some similar outlooks as well as differing views have been recorded. Many philosophers have dissected this important topic, however I intend to concentrate of the famous works of Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill. After meticulously analyzing each of the above philosophers’ texts, I personally prefer the position of utilitarian and Benthamite, John Stuart Mill. After comparing and contrasting the positions and reasonings of these philosophers, I will demonstrate my own reasons why I have chosen John Stuart Mill as the most established in his theory of the role of pleasure in morality. Aristotle was a particularly influential Grecian philosopher and student of Plato who lived from 384BC- 322BC (ADD CITATION). Within Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle outlines the thoughts of the general population along with his regards and rationales in explaining many philosophical premises. But to concentrate on how Aristotle feels about the role of pleasure in morality, Aristotle introduces the idea that â€Å"most people think happiness involves pleasure.† He goes on to interpret the roles of different pleasures and their virtues and vices, giving examples such as as bodily pleasures and soul pleasures.Show MoreRelatedReconciling Moral Theories889 Words   |  4 Pagesthe compatibility of their particulars can be a daunting task. Determining the compatibility of John Stuart Mill’s modern moral theory of utilitarianism with Aristotle’s pre-modern moral philosophy will involve an in-depth exploration for each moral philosophy, comparing and contrasting the smallest details of each. To start, an understanding of Aristotelian moral philosophy is fundamental. Aristotle basesd his theory on the concepts of â€Å"virtue,† coming from the Greek word â€Å"arà ªte† meaning â€Å"excellence†Read MoreSimilarity Between Religion And Utilitarianism813 Words   |  4 Pagesassert that religion is utilitarian. The views of Aristotle and those of Mills on ethics are different. While Aristotle’s focuses on individual happiness, Mill focuses on the happiness of the community as a whole. Mill and Aristotle had very different views on individual happiness. Mill believed that pleasure and the absence of pain are what make an individual happy. On the other hand, Aristotle believed that happiness arises from virtue. Aristotle argues that virtue, which is a trained faculty ofRead MoreThomas Aquinas And John Stuart Mill1582 Words   |  7 PagesPhilosophers that made a huge impact on us all are Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. All four philosophers are very well known for their intelligence and work in the ethics community. Although all of the philosophers have the same goal of defining ethics and how we should behave in terms of the highest good for human beings they all do it in different ways in which they feel is the proper way. Throughout this paper I wil l be comparing each of the four main Philosophers that weRead MoreJohn Stuart Mill And Utilitarianism983 Words   |  4 Pagessingle-criterion solutions attractive toward rapid and effective problem solving. Comparing deontological and consequentialist ethics by single criterion dynamic: Deontological rule based ethics, with Immanuel Kant and Categorical Imperative drive decisions through rule or principle to be applied; which means, consequences do not matter morally. In the other hand, Consequential ends based ethics, with John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism, drive decisions through the amount of happiness to be producedRead MoreHelping The Community Is A Big Part In How Our World Grows1913 Words   |  8 Pageswhile as a society we should be focused community in order to fulfill our basic human needs. A substantial proponent of charity would be Aristotle. Aristotle believed in two types of virtues, moral and intellectual. Virtues, as he explained, are not naturally given and moral virtue is accumulated through acts and habits. In the eyes of the public, Aristotle finds it important that humans focus on those around us and in the community in order to live a happy life. Being involved in a society addsRead MoreThe Ethics Of Virtue Ethics925 Words   |  4 PagesVirtue ethics is a normative theory whose foundations were laid by Aristotle. This theory approaches normative ethics in substantially different ways than consequentialist and deontological theories. In this essay, I will contrast and compare virtue ethics to utilitarianism, ethical egoism, and Kantianism to demonstrate these differences. There is one fundamental aspect of virtue ethics that sets it apart from the other theories I will discuss. For the sake of brevity and to avoid redundancy, I willRead MoreJohn Stuart Mil l s The Principle Of Utility As The Standard For Determining The Rightness Of Actions779 Words   |  4 PagesUtilitarian theory was given by John Stuart Mill and it accepts the principle of utility as the standard for determining the rightness of actions. According to this theory, our actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. An act is right if it produces the best aggregate consequences for all those affected by that given act. Thus, consequences of an action are the focus of this theory and as it takes into considerationRead MoreImmanuel Kant And John Stuart Mill Essay2002 Words   |  9 Pageswidely known ethical philosophers are Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. While they may have philosophized around the same time period, the philosophers have very different ideas about ethics and happiness. Immanuel Kant, author of Duty and Reason, believed in the morality of the good will and duty. He espou sed that happiness is an irrelevancy insofar as fulfilling duty is the most important aspect of leading a moral life. Conversely, John Stuart Mill, who wrote, The Greatest Happiness Principle, is wellRead More John Stuart Mill Essay examples1834 Words   |  8 Pages Who is John Stuart Mill? John Stuart Mill was born on May 20, 1806, in London, England. He was mostly known for his radical views. For example, he preached sexual equality, divorce, universal suffrage, free speech, and proportional representation. He had many works of writings such as Principles of Political Economy, On Liberty, The Subjections of Women, and the Three Essays of Religion: Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;John Mill was the eldest son of JamesRead MoreAnalysis Of Antonin Scalia s The Court Of The Supreme Court975 Words   |  4 Pagesdetermine when, and in what direction, evolution has occurred? Is it the will of the majority, discerned from newspapers, radio talk shows, public opinion polls, and chats at the county club? Is it the philosophy of Hume, or of John Rawls, or of John Stuart Mill, or of Aristotle? As soon as the discussion goes beyond the issue of whether the Constitution is static; the evolutionists divide into, as many camps are there are individual views of the good, the true and the beautiful† (pg. 216). He concludes

Being the Child of a Parent with a Mental Illness

Being the child of a parent who has a mental illness involves considerable risk to the child’s secure attachment and long-term mental health. Parental mental health concerns place children at a significantly greater risk of lower social, psychological and physical health than children in families not affected by mental illness. (Mayberry et al, 2005). Living with a parent suffering from a mental illness can have huge negative effects for the developing child. It has been proven numerous times that there is a genuine link between parental mental illness and its adverse effects for children, e.g. Rutter, 1966, Cleaver et all, 1999. These effects can often manifest themselves as anxiety, self-esteem issues, poor relationships, educational underachievement, and emotional and behavioural problems. It should be noted that an extremely low percentage of mentally unwell parents intentionally abuse their children physically or emotionally. Another interesting facet of the parent-child relationship within the context of mental health, is that oftentimes, the child of a mentally unwell parent can often develop the same mental illness as the parent. Mattejat and Remschmidt wrote that the probability of a particular mental illness is higher when a biological parent has the same condition. The lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia is about 1% in the general population, but more than ten times higher if a parent suffers from the disease. (2008). Within this written piece, it is myShow MoreRelatedMental Illness Affects Numerous Individuals In America,1424 Words   |  6 PagesMental illness affects numerous individuals in America, with nearly 43.8 million adults in America living with a serious illness (Mental health facts in America, n.d). Many of these adults suffering with a mental illness also play the role of a mother, father, or caregiver. According to Costea (2011), â€Å"†¦31% of American women and about 17% of men have a 12-month prevalence of at least one psychiatric disorder, and of those 65% are mothers and 52% are fathers†. However, research focuses on the individualsRead MoreChildren With Mentally Ill Parents930 Words   |  4 PagesRaised by the Mentally Ill To many children, parents are loving caregivers that work around the clock to provide them with the physical and emotional necessities that are essential to a healthy and happy childhood. However, in some unfortunate cases, one or both parents are unable to care for their children. For whatever reason it may be, it is difficult on one or both parents and their children when they are separated, but what if the parents were unfit to take care of their children and theyRead MoreQuestioning The Disorderly1484 Words   |  6 Pagesdiscrimination, such as hate crimes, bullying and unnecessary judgement, than the average straight or cis-gender person, making it more difficult to cope with mental illness and achieve the American Dream. The American Dream is slightly tainted for those in the LGBTQ+ community, and suffering from a mental illness. Being queer and diagnosed with a mental disorder is a fatal mix, many of which don’t survive the curse. These minorities are alienated from society and diagnosed with more than just a disorderRead MoreCorrelation Between Parietal And Adolescent Drug Abuse1578 Words   |  7 Pagesof America. The objective of the experiment is to show the correlation between substance use behaviors of parents and their children’s substance use initiation and other risky behaviors. The experiment is focused on the role of mothers and fathers as a separate study. The surveys that take place through a series of interviews include two people from a selected household, one parent and one child. This topic was of interest to me because I grew up with an alcoholic father. Alcoholism has affected myRead MoreMaking Meaning When A Child Has Mental Illness1222 Words   |  5 Pagesentitled, â€Å"Making Meaning When a Child Has Mental Illness: Four Mothers Share Their Experiences† by Ahmann (2013) is essentially where Ahmann interviews four mothers whose children have been given a mental health diagnosis and she documents in anecdo tal form how each of them were able to cope, and even escape the feelings of grief, isolation, loneliness, helplessness, and depression by reaching out to others and â€Å"making meaning† in their lives by being mentors to other parents who receive a similar diagnosisRead MoreThe Effects Of Depression And Its Effects On Society Essay1497 Words   |  6 Pagesdepressed; however, the earliest signs of depression begin with youngest of the human population. From the day a child is born, the environment, the people, and everything else around them, begins to influence their decisions and impact the way they will live their life. A child is the first naà ¯ve human being to be influenced by external forces. From every experience, to every event, the child participates or does not participate in, influences their thoughts and emotions. Their brain is not quite matureRead MoreSterilization is a complex procedure and has raise debates throughout the world on whether is a1200 Words à ‚  |  5 Pagestheir children and some suggest it violates the basic human rights of the child (Freckelton, 2008). The case study report discussed about the increase of sterilization for children with disability in Australia. The procedures were being done mostly without the authority of the court or tribunal where they play a major role. The involvement of the court or tribunal is necessary as the high court in 1992 announced that parents do not have the right or power to give consent for the sterilization ofRead MoreMental Illness And Mental Health1460 Words   |  6 Pageshaving mental health problems when actually they should be referred to as having a mental illness. Mental health is â€Å"a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community† (Mental health basics). Mental health is something a normal, healthy functioning human being has when everything in their head is in order. A mental illness is theRead MoreThe Art icle Crying Alone With My Child 974 Words   |  4 PagesBipolar disorder is manic depressive illness a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania(macmillan). There is an increase in prevalence over recent years of children at an early age that have been diagnosed with the with bipolar disorder. There is a switch in being in this depressive state then rapidly switching over to a manic state. This disorder to known to shift moods, emotions, and behavior throughout the dayRead MoreThe Problem Of The Resistant Parent766 Words   |  4 PagesResistant Parent Most parents struggle with their child having a mental health illness. Many parents struggle with understanding the disorder, identifying ways to alter the family dynamic while managing his or her stress. In most cases, the parents are resistant to needing to make changes in their home. There are many factors to address with dealing with a resistant parent. It is my objective to cover some of those issues in this post. Parents are an important factor in the treatment of a child or adolescent

The Return Nightfall Chapter 19 Free Essays

Matt was knocking at the Bryces’ door, with Elena at his side. Elena had disguised herself by stuffing all her hair into a Virginia Cavaliers baseball cap and wearing wraparound sunglasses from one of Stefan’s drawers. She was also wearing an over-large maroon and navy Pendleton shirt donated by Matt, and a pair of Meredith’s outgrown jeans. We will write a custom essay sample on The Return: Nightfall Chapter 19 or any similar topic only for you Order Now She felt sure that no one who had known the old Elena Gilbert would ever recognize her, dressed like this. The door opened very slowly to reveal not Mr. or Mrs. Bryce, nor Jim, but Tamra. She was wearing – well, close to nothing. She had on a thong bikini bottom, but it looked handmade, as if she’d cut a regular bikini bottom with scissors – and it was beginning to come apart. On top she had two round decorations made of cardboard with sequins pasted on and a few strands of colored tinsel. On her head she wore a paper crown, which was clearly where she’d gotten the tinsel. She’d made an attempt to glue strands onto the bikini bottoms as well. The result looked like what it was: a child’s attempt to make an outfit for a Las Vegas showgirl or stripper. Matt immediately turned around and stood facing away, but Tami threw herself at him and plastered herself to his back. â€Å"Matt Honey-butt,† she cooed. â€Å"You came back. I knew you would. But why’d you bring this ugly old whore with you? How can we – â€Å" Elena stepped forward, then, because Matt had whirled with his hand up. She was sure that Matt had never struck a female in his life, especially a child, but he was also over-sensitive about one or two subjects. Like her. Elena managed to get between Matt and the surprisingly strong Tamra. She had to hide a smile when contemplating Tami’s costume. After all, only a few days ago, she hadn’t understood the human nakedness taboo at all. Now she got it, but it didn’t seem nearly as important as it once had. People were born with their own perfectly good skins on. There was no real reason, in her mind, to wear false skins over those, unless it was cold or somehow uncomfortable without them. But society said that to be naked was to be wicked. Tami was trying to be wicked, in her own childish way. â€Å"Get your hands off me, you old whore,† Tamra snarled as Elena held her away from Matt, and then she added several rather lengthy expletives. â€Å"Tami, where are your parents? Where’s your brother?† Elena said. She ignored the obscene words – they were just sounds – but saw that Matt had gone white around the lips. â€Å"You apologize to Elena right now! Apologize for talking that way!† he demanded. â€Å"Elena’s a stinking corpse with worms in her eye sockets,† Tamra sang glibly. â€Å"But my friend says she was a whore when she was alive. A real† – a string of four-letter words that made Matt gasp – â€Å"cheap whore.You know. Nothing’s cheaper than something that comes free.† â€Å"Matt, just don’t pay any attention,† Elena said under her breath, and she repeated, â€Å"Where are your parents and Jim?† The answer was littered with more expletives, but it amounted to the story – truthful or not – that Mr. and Mrs. Bryce had gone away on vacation for a few days, and that Jim was with his girlfriend, Isobel. â€Å"Okay, then, I guess I’ll just have to help you get into some more decent clothes,† Elena said. â€Å"First, I think you need a shower to get these Christmas doodads off – â€Å" â€Å"Just try-hy-hy! Just try-hy-hy!† The answer was somewhere between the whinny of a horse and human speech. â€Å"I glued them on with PermaStick!† Tami added and then began giggling on a high and hysterical note. â€Å"Oh, my God – Tamra, do you realize that if there isn’t some solvent for this, you may need surgery?† Tami’s answer was foul. There was also a sudden foul smell. No, not a smell, Elena thought: a choking, gutcurdling stench. â€Å"Oops!† Tami gave that high, glassy giggle again. â€Å"Pardonmoi . At least it’snatural gas.† Matt cleared his throat. â€Å"Elena – I don’t think we should be here. With her folks gone and all†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"They’re afraid of me,† Tamra giggled. â€Å"Aren’tyou ?† – very suddenly in a voice that had dropped several octaves. Elena looked Tamra in the eye. â€Å"No, I’m not. I just feel sorry for a little girl who was in the wrong place at the wrong time. But Matt’s right, I guess. We have to go.† Tami’s whole manner seemed to change. â€Å"I’m so sorry†¦. I didn’t realize I had guests of that caliber. Don’t go, please, Matt.† Then she added in a confidential whisper to Elena, â€Å"Is he any good?† â€Å"What?† Tami nodded at Matt, who immediately turned his back to her. He looked as if he felt a terrible, repulsive fascination for Tami’s ridiculous appearance. â€Å"Him. Is he any good in the sack?† â€Å"Matt, look at this.† Elena held up a small tube of glue. â€Å"I think she actually did PermaStick that stuff to her skin. We have to call Child Protective Services or whatever, because nobody took her to the hospital right away. Whether her parents knew about this behavior or not, they shouldn’t have just left her.† â€Å"I just hopethey’re all right. Her family,† Matt said grimly as they walked out the door, with Tami coolly following them to the car, and shouting lurid details about â€Å"what a good time† they had had, â€Å"the three of them.† Elena glanced at him uneasily from her place in the passenger seat – with no ID or driver’s license, of course, she knew she shouldn’t drive. â€Å"Maybe we’d better take her to the police first. My God, that poor family!† Matt said nothing for a long time. His chin was set, his mouth grim. â€Å"I feel somehow as if I’m responsible. I mean, I knew there was something wrong with her – I should have told her parents then.† â€Å"Now you’re sounding like Stefan. You’re not responsible for everyone you meet.† Matt gave her a grateful glance, and Elena continued, â€Å"In fact I’m going to ask Bonnie and Meredith to do one other thing, which proves you’re not. I’m going to ask them to check on Isobel Saitou, Jim’s girlfriend.You’ve never had any contact with her, but Tami might have.† â€Å"You mean you think she’s got it, too?† â€Å"That’s what I hope Bonnie and Meredith will find out.† Bonnie stopped dead, almost losing her hold on Mrs. Forbes’s feet. â€Å"I am not going into that bedroom.† â€Å"You have to. I can’t manage her alone,† Meredith said. Then she added cajolingly, â€Å"Look, Bonnie, if you go in with me, I’ll tell you a secret.† Bonnie bit her lip. Then she shut her eyes and let Meredith guide her, step by step, farther into this house of horror. She knew where the master bedroom was – after all, she had played here since childhood. All the way down the hall, then turn left. She was surprised when Meredith came to a sudden stop after only a few steps. â€Å"Bonnie.† â€Å"Well? What?† â€Å"I don’t want to frighten you, but – â€Å" This had the immediate effect of terrifying Bonnie. Her eyes snapped open. â€Å"What?What? † Before Meredith could answer she glanced over her shoulder in fear and saw what. Caroline was behind her. But not standing. She was crawling – no, she was scuttling, the way she had on Stefan’s floor. Like a lizard. Her bronze hair, unkempt, hung down over her face. Her elbows and knees stuck out at impossible angles. Bonnie screamed, but the pressure of the house seemed to choke the scream back down her throat. The only effect it had was to make Caroline look up at her with a quick reptilian movement of her head. â€Å"Oh, my God – Caroline, what happened to your face?† Caroline had a black eye. Or rather, a purplish-red eye that was so swollen that Bonnie knew it would have to turn black in time. On her jaw was another purple swelling bruise. Caroline didn’t answer, unless you counted the sibilant hiss she gave while scuttling forward. â€Å"Meredith, run! She’s right behind me!† Meredith quickened her pace, looking frightened – all the more frightening to Bonnie because almost nothing could shake her friend. But as they lurched forward, with Mrs. Forbes bouncing between them, Caroline scuttled right under her mother and into the door of her parents’ room, the master bedroom. â€Å"Meredith, I won’t go in th – † But they were already stumbling through the door. Bonnie shot quick darting glances into every corner. Caroline was nowhere to be seen. â€Å"Maybe she’s in the closet,† Meredith said. â€Å"Now, let me go first and put her head on the far side of the bed. We can adjust her later.† She backed around the bed, almost dragging Bonnie with her, and dumped Mrs. Forbes’s upper torso so that her head rested on pillows. â€Å"Now just pull her and put her legs down on the other side.† â€Å"I can’t do it. I can’t! Caroline’sunder the bed, you know.† â€Å"She can’t be under the bed. There’s only about a five-inch clearance,† Meredith said firmly. â€Å"She’s there! Iknow it. And† – rather fiercely – â€Å"you promised you’d tell me a secret.† â€Å"All right!† Meredith gave a complicit glance through her disheveled dark hair. â€Å"I telegraphed Alaric yesterday. He’s so far out in the boonies that telegraph is the only way to reach him, and it may be days before my message gets to him. I had an idea that we were going to need his advice. I feel bad, asking him to do projects that aren’t for his doctorate, but – â€Å" â€Å"Who cares about his doctorate? Godbless you!† cried Bonnie thankfully. â€Å"You did just right!† â€Å"Then come on and swing Mrs. Forbes’ feet around the bottom of the bed. You can do it if you lean in.† The bed was a California king-size. Mrs. Forbes was lying at an angle across it, like a doll thrown on the floor. But Bonnie halted near the foot of the bed. â€Å"Caroline’s going to grab me.† â€Å"No, she won’t. Come on, Bonnie. Just get Mrs. Forbes’ legs and give one big heave†¦.† â€Å"If I get that close to the bed, she’llgrab me!† â€Å"Why should she?† â€Å"Because she knows what scares me! And now that I’ve said it, shedefinitely will.† â€Å"If she grabs you, I’ll come and kick her in the face.† â€Å"Your leg’s not that long. It would bang on the metal bed-frame thingummy – â€Å" â€Å"Oh, for God’s sake, Bonnie! Just help meheeeeeeere !† The last word was a full-fledged scream. â€Å"Meredith – † began Bonnie, and then she screamed, too. â€Å"What is it?† â€Å"She’s grabbing me!† â€Å"She can’t be!She’s grabbingme ! Nobody has arms that long!† â€Å"Or that strong! Bonnie!I can’t make her let go!† â€Å"Neither can I!† And then any words were drowned in screaming. After dropping Tami off with the police, driving Elena around the woods known as the Fell’s State Park was†¦well, a walk in the park. Every so often they would stop. Elena would go a few steps into the trees and stand, Calling – however you did that. Then she came back to the Jaguar, looking discouraged. â€Å"I’m not sure that Bonnie wouldn’t be better at this,† she said to Matt. â€Å"If we can brace ourselves to go out at night.† Matt shuddered involuntarily. â€Å"Two nights were enough.† â€Å"Do you know, you never told me your story from that first night. Or at least, not when I could understand words, spoken words.† â€Å"Well, I was driving around like this, except almost on the other side of the Old Wood – near the Lightning-Split Oak area†¦?† â€Å"Right.† â€Å"When right in the middle of the road something appears.† â€Å"A fox?† â€Å"Well, it was red in the headlights, but it wasn’t like any fox I’ve ever seen. And I’ve been driving this road since I could drive.† â€Å"A wolf?† â€Å"Like a werewolf, you mean? But, no – I’ve seen wolves by moonlight and they’re bigger. This was right in between.† â€Å"In other words,† Elena said, narrowing her lapis lazuli eyes, â€Å"a custom-made creature.† â€Å"Maybe. It sure was different from the malach that chewed my arm up.† Elena nodded. Malach could take all sorts of different forms, from what she understood. But they were siblings in one way: they all used Power and they all needed a diet of Power to live. And they could be manipulated by a stronger Power than they had. And they were venomous enemies of humans. â€Å"So all we really know is that we don’t know anything.† â€Å"Right. That was the place back there, where we saw it. It just suddenly appeared in the middle of the – hey!† â€Å"Go right! Righthere !† â€Å"Just like that! It was just like that!† The Jaguar screeched almost to a stop, turning right, not into a ditch but into a small lane that no one would notice unless they were looking directly at it. When the car stopped, they both stared up the lane, breathing hard. Neither had to ask whether the other had seen a reddish creature zip across the road, bigger than a fox but smaller than a wolf. They looked up at the narrow lane. â€Å"The million-dollar question: should we go in?† Matt asked. â€Å"NoKEEP OUT signs – and hardly any houses on this side of the wood. Across the street and down a way there’s the Dunstans’.† â€Å"So we go in?† â€Å"We go in. Just go slowly. It’s later than I thought.† Meredith, of course, was the one to calm down first. â€Å"Allright , Bonnie,† she said. â€Å"Stop it! Now! It’s not going to do any good here!† Bonnie didn’t think shecould stop it. But Meredith had that special look in her dark eyes; the one that meant she was serious. The look she’d had before laying Caroline out on Stefan’s floor. Bonnie made a supreme effort and found that somehow she was able to hold in the next shriek. She looked dumbly at Meredith, feeling her own body shake. â€Å"Good. Good, Bonnie. Now.† Meredith swallowed. â€Å"Pulling doesn’t do any good, either. So I’m going to try†¦peeling her fingers off. If anything happens to me; if I get – pulled under the bed or anything, then yourun , Bonnie. And if you can’t run, then you call Elena and Matt. You call until you get an answer.† Bonnie managed something almost heroic then. She refused to picture Meredith being pulled under the bed. She wouldn’t let herself imagine how that would look as Meredith, struggling, disappeared, or how she would feel, all alone, after that. They’d both left their purses with their mobile phones in the entryway to carry Mrs. Forbes, so Meredith wasn’t saying to call them in any normal sense. She meant Call them. A sudden radical burst of indignation swept through Bonnie. Why did girls carry purses anyway? Even the efficient, reliable Meredith often did it. Of course Meredith’s purses were usually designer handbags that enhanced her outfits and were full of useful things like small notebooks and keychain flashlights, but still†¦a boy would have his mobile phone in his pocket. From now on, I’m wearing a waist pouch, Bonnie thought, feeling as if she were raising a rebel flag for girls everywhere, and for just a moment also feeling her panic recede. Then she saw Meredith stooping, a hunched figure in the dim light, and at the same moment she felt the grip on her own ankle tighten. Despite herself she glanced down, and saw the outline of Caroline’s tanned fingers and long bronze nails against the creamy white of the rug. Panic burst out in her again, full force. She made a choked sound that was a strangled scream, and to her own astonishment she spontaneously hit trance and began to Call. It wasn’t the fact that she was Calling that surprised her. It was what she was saying. Damon! Damon! We’re trapped at Caroline’s house and she’s gone crazy! Help! It flowed out of her like an underwater well that had been suddenly tapped, releasing a geyser. Damon, she’s got me by the ankle – and she won’t let go! If she pulls Meredith under, I don’t know what I’ll do! Help me! Vaguely, because the trance was good and deep, she heard Meredith say, â€Å"Ah-hah! It feels like fingers, but actually it’s a vine. It must be one of those tentacles that Matt told us about. I’m – trying – to break one of the loops – off†¦Ã¢â‚¬  All at once there was a rustling from under the bed. And not just from one place, either, but a massive whipping and shaking that actually bounced the mattress up and down, even with poor little Mrs. Forbes on it. There must be dozens of those insects under there. Damon, it’s thosethings! Lots of them. Oh, God, I think I’m going to faint. And if I faint – and if Caroline pulls me under†¦Oh, please come and help! â€Å"Damn!† Meredith was saying. â€Å"I don’t know how Matt managed to do this. It’s too tight, and – and I think there’s more than one tentacle here.† It’s all over,Bonnie sent in quiet conclusion, feeling herself start to go at the knees.We’re going to die. â€Å"Undoubtedly – that’s the problem with humans. But not justyet ,† a voice said from behind her, and a strong arm went around her, taking up her weight easily. â€Å"Caroline, the fun’s over. I mean it. Letgo!† â€Å"Damon?† Bonnie gasped. â€Å"Damon? You came!† â€Å"All that wailing gets on my nerves. It doesn’t mean – â€Å" But Bonnie wasn’t listening. She wasn’t even thinking. She was still half in trance and not responsible (she decided later) for her own actions. She wasn’therself . It was someone else who went into rapture when the grip on her ankle loosened, and someone else who whirled around in Damon’s grip and threw her arms around his neck and kissed him on the mouth. It was someone else, too, who felt Damon startle, with his arms still around her, and who noticed that he made no attempt to pull away from the kiss. That person also noticed, when at last she leaned back, that Damon’s skin, pale in the dim light, looked almost as if he had flushed. And that was when Meredith straightened up slowly, painfully, from the other side of the bed, which was still jouncing up and down. She hadn’t seen anything of the kiss, and looked at Damon as if she couldn’t believe he was really here. She was at a great disadvantage, and Bonnie knew she knew it. This was one of those situations where anyone else would have been too flustered to speak, or even stammer. But Meredith just took a deep breath and then said quietly, â€Å"Damon. Thank you. Do you think – would it be too much trouble to make the malach let go of me, as well?† Now Damon looked like his old self. He gave a brilliant smile aimed at something no one else could see and said sharply, â€Å"And as for the rest of you down there – heel!† He snapped his fingers. The bed stopped moving instantly. Meredith stepped away, and closed her eyes for a moment in relief. â€Å"Thank you again,† she said, with the dignity of a princess, but fervently. â€Å"And now, do you think you could do anything about Caro – â€Å" â€Å"Right now,† Damon cut in even more roughly than usual, â€Å"I have to run.† He glanced at the Rolex on his wrist. â€Å"It’s past 4:44, and I had an appointment I’m already late for. Come around here and prop up this dizzy bundle. She’s not quite ready to stand by herself.† Meredith hastened to switch places with him. At that point, Bonnie discovered that her legs were no longer wobbling. â€Å"Wait a minute, though,† Meredith said rapidly. â€Å"Elenaneeds to talk to you – desperately – â€Å" But Damon was gone, as if he’d mastered the art of simply disappearing, not even waiting for Bonnie’s thanks. Meredith looked astonished, as if she’d been certain that the mention of Elena’s name would stop him, but Bonnie had something else on her mind. â€Å"Meredith,† Bonnie whispered, putting two fingers to her lips in amazement. â€Å"I kissed him!† â€Å"What?When? â€Å" â€Å"Before you stood up. I – don’t even know how it happened but I did it!† She expected some kind of explosion from Meredith. Instead, Meredith looked at her thoughtfully and murmured, â€Å"Well, maybe it wasn’t such a bad thing to do, after all. What I don’t understand is why he turned up in the first place.† â€Å"Uh. That was me, too. I Called him. I don’t know how that happened either – â€Å" â€Å"Well, there’s no point in trying to figure it out in here.† Meredith turned toward the bed. â€Å"Caroline, are you coming out of there? Are you going to stand up and have a normal conversation?† There was a menacing and reptilian hiss from under the bed, along with the whipping of tentacles and another noise that Bonnie had never heard before but which terrified her instinctively, like the snapping of giant pincers. â€Å"That’s answer enough for me,† she said, and grabbed Meredith to drag her out of the room. Meredith didn’t need dragging. But for the first time today they heard Caroline’s taunting voice, lifted childishly high. â€Å"Bonnie and Damon sitting in a tree K-I-S-S-I-N-G. First comes love, then comes marriage; Then there comes a vampire in a baby carriage.† Meredith paused in the hallway. â€Å"Caroline, you know that that isn’t going to help matters. Come out – â€Å" The bed went into a frenzy, bucking and heaving. Bonnie turned and ran, and she knew Meredith was right behind her. They still didn’t manage to outpace the singsong words: â€Å"You’re notmy friends; you’re thewhore’s friends. Just you wait! Just youwait !† Bonnie and Meredith grabbed their purses and left the house. â€Å"What time is it?† Bonnie asked, when they were safely in Meredith’s car. â€Å"Almost five.† â€Å"It seemed like so much longer!† â€Å"I know, but we’ve got hours of daylight left. And, come to that, I have a text message from Elena.† â€Å"About Tami?† â€Å"I’ll tell you about it. But first – † It was one of the few times Bonnie had seen Meredith look awkward. Finally she blurted, â€Å"How was it?† â€Å"How was what?† â€Å"Kissing Damon, you nitwit!† How to cite The Return: Nightfall Chapter 19, Essay examples

Historical perspective of modes of construction of buildings free essay sample

The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilisations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. MATERIALS The chief building material was the mud brick, formed in wooden moulds. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, bricks were also being fired and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT GREECE The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However very many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc. ), so our knowledge of how these were put together is purely conjectural. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. Before 650 B. C. E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or petrified carpentry. Fire clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. Fired bricks were not commonly employed. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion. Building structures used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could achieved. However, the Greeks did construct Arch Bridges. Greek mathematics was technically advanced and we know for certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was simply left until the drums of the columns were cut in place. The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction. Design of Assyrian buildings, fortifications and temples Tell Asmar Standing man votive sculpture 2750-2600 B. C The plans of all the Assyrian buildings are rectangular, and we know that long ago, as now, the Eastern architects used this outline almost invariably, and upon it reared some of the most lovely and varied forms ever devised. They gather over the angles by graceful curves, and on the basis of an ordinary square hall carry up a minaret or a dome, an octagon or a circle. That this was sometimes done in Assyria is shown by the sculptures. Slabs from Kouyunjik show domes of varied form, and tower-like structures, each rising from a square base. The resemblance between the ancient form of the dome and those still used in the Assyrian villages is very striking. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas-reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well-nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty-eight towers have been traced, and at Kouyunjik there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun-dried bricks. At Khorsabad there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1. 2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval machicolations, and are finished at top with battlements, remains of which have been found at Nimroud and Kouyunjik, and at Kale Shortage, the supposed capital of Assyria before Nineveh. But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of Nuba at Borsippa (now Birs Nimrod), near Babylon, which has been identified as the temple of the Seven Spheres. This was reconstructed by Nebuchadnezzar, as appears by a well-known inscription. Another example is at Muggier, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: kisubbu) which was used alternatively for agriculture and waste disposal. External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal. This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia. In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B. C. , found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient Assyrian fountain discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream. The water was led from small conduits. CONSTRUCTION IN ANCIENT EGYPT As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings. MATERIALS Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork. The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger blocks may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete. TECHNOLOGY Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of slaves. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps. OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force. The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion. Pyramids at Giza. In the background from L to R: The Pyramid of Menkaure, The Pyramid of Khafre and The Great Pyramid of Khufu. Egyptian Architecture The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin was that of Egypt (c. 3100-2040 BCE). In addition to its own written language, religion and dynastic ruling class, it developed a unique style of Egyptian architecture, largely consisting of massive burial chambers in the form of Pyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate Valley of the Kings, Luxor). Design was monumental but not architecturally complex and employed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian expertise in stone had a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examples of Egyptian pyramid architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) designed by Imhotep one of the greatest architects of the ancient world and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c. 2550 BCE), also called the Pyramid of Khufu or Pyramid of Cheops. Later, during the Middle and Late Kingdoms (c. 2040-300 CE), the Egyptians constructed a series of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards). These structures were adorned with a diverse range of artworks few of which survive including murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork, depicting various Gods, deities, rulers and symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic inscriptions. ROMAN CONSTRUCTION In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. We also have the first surviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius which includes extensive passages on construction techniques. Materials The great Roman breakthrough was the development of hydraulic lime mortar. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash the Romans managed to make a mortar that would harden under water. This provided them with a cheap material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering. The concrete, being formed of nothing more than rubble and mortar was cheap and very easy to produce, requiring relatively unskilled labour, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. Glass was commonly used in windows. Organisation of labour The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or freed men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task. Technology Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajans column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved. A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres. Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain. Roman Architecture Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially practical people with a flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the construction of arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all visual arts. However, without Roman art with its genius for copying and adapting Greek styles most of the artistic achievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost. Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Drainage was a common problem, as was security. This, together with Romes growing desire to increase its power and majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths (eg. the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of the two roads. They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey apartment blocks. Architectural Advances: Arches Concrete Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new materials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in the construction of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency and capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed to support the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building of larger open areas under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important secular and Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon. Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman architect Vitruvius (c. 78-10 BCE) in his book De Architectura. This is exemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus cementicium), a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BCE. This exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionized Roman engineering and architecture. As tile-covered concrete began to replace marble as the main building material, architects could be more daring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with its undomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and became less geometric and more free-flowing. Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome embellished their public buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of the Emperor), fresco murals, and mosaics. Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (the elliptical Flavian amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajans Column (a monument to the Emperor Trajan). Situated to the east of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum took 8 years to build, had seating for 50,000 spectators. Historians and archeologists estimate that a staggering 500,000 people and over 1 million wild animals perished in the games at the Colosseum. Trajans Column, located close to the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum, was finished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly detailed spiral bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times, and narrates Trajans victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is made from 20 huge blocks of Carrara marble, each weighing about 40 tons. It stands about 30 metres in height and 4 metres in width. USING RELEVANT SKETCHES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF THE GLOBE USE BUILDING ENVELOPE TO ACHIEVE INTERNAL COMFORT. A building envelope includes all the components that make up the shell or skin of the building. These components separate the exterior of the building from the interior, and are designed by the project architect or engineers to meet the needs of each individual application. The building envelope may also be defined as the components that separate conditioned areas from unconditioned space. Exterior or unheated living spaces are not included inside the envelope, while any living space that is equipped with heat or air conditioning would be included. The building envelope must be carefully designed with regard to climate, ventilation, and energy consumption within the structure. There are four basic functions of the building envelope. These include adding structural support, controlling moisture and humidity, regulating temperature, and controlling air pressure changes. By serving these different functions, the envelope also affects ventilation and energy use within the building. The envelope is made up of all of the exterior components of the building, including walls, roofing, foundations, windows, and doors. Finish materials like siding and decorative items are not usually considered a part of the envelope. Insulation, building paper, and other components aimed at controlling moisture and airflow are typically included in the building envelope design. Building envelopes are often characterized as tight or loose. A tight envelope is precisely constructed to allow relatively few air leaks. This often requires significant quantities of insulation, caulk, sealants, and energy-efficient windows to create a tight shell for the building. Loosely-constructed envelopes allow air to flow more freely from the exterior to interior spaces. A loose envelope may be created by design, or may be the result of poor construction techniques. Many experts debate the benefits of tight versus loose building envelopes. A tight envelope allows for a high level of control over indoor air quality, energy consumption, temperature, and humidity levels. It leads to fewer drafts and a more comfortable environment for occupants, and often results in less waste in heating and cooling costs. Tightly-designed envelopes also reduce the likelihood of mold or mildew caused by moisture infiltration, which may prolong the life of building components. At the same time, tighter buildings also limit how much natural ventilation can occur, which leads to more extensive mechanical ventilation requirements. A loosely-constructed building envelope allows natural air transfers to occur, which improves indoor air quality and often eliminates the need for mechanical ventilation. At the same time these looser buildings tend to be more drafty and uncomfortable, and can make it difficult to regulate temperature levels. There is an increased chance of moisture-related mold, and higher quantities of heated or cooled air are able to escape through leaks in the envelope. This can increase energy bills and negatively impact the environment by increasing greenhouse gas levels. The building envelope is the area that separates conditioned space from unconditioned space or outside air. In this picture, the building envelope is the area surrounded by the insulation. The code is only concerned with the building envelope.